1" " Professional+Ethics:+Case+study+ " 1)+Executive+Summary+ " • TEPCO"should"in"future"attempt"an"ethical"management"policy." • TEPCO"should"carry"out"an"aviation"style"investigation"into"the"failure"of"safety"procedures"at" the"Fukushima"Daiichi"1""plant"and"openly"publicise"the"results."" • Engineers"and"management"involved"in"running"such"plants"in"future"should"be"more"open" about"the"safety"implications"of"known"design"limitations."" " " 2)+Introduction+ On"the"11th"of"March"2011"a"magnitude"9.0"earthquake[²]" "(the"most"powerful"in"the"country’s"history),"occurred" off"the"Japanese"coast"of"Tōhoku."This"earthquake" triggered"a"powerful"tsunami"which"caused"over"15,500" deaths"as"well,"destabilizing"damage"to"the"infrastructure" of"the"country."In"addition"to"this"a"15m"tsunami"caused" unprecedented"damage"to"the"Fukashima"Daiichi"I" nuclear"power"plant,"which"caused"a"complete"power"loss" in"the"plant"resulting"in"meltdown"the"next"day"of"½"of" the"plant’s"6"nuclear"reactors.""The"results"of"this"were" the"largest"nuclear"power"plant"incident"in"Japan’s"history," due"to"the"fact"that"the"primary"containment"vessel" exploded"and"caused"the"largest"fallout"since"Chernobyl" in"1986."Despite"the"power"of"the"tsunami"being" unaccounted"for,"it"was"later"shown"that"the"damage"to" the"nuclear"reactor"could"have"been"greatly"reduced"as" well"avoiding"the"nuclear"meltdown"if"greater"care"had" been"taken"in"the"initial"building"of"the"plant"by"General" electric"and"more"notice"had"been"taken"of"engineers’" safety"revisions"of"the"plant"in"a"document"compiling" faults"within"the"nuclear"cores"and"the"defence"of"the"plant"Which"Tokyo"electrical"power"company" (TEPCO)"ignored."Furthermore"if"the"conflict"of"executive"authority"and"expert"authority"had"been" reconciled,"many"lives"would"have"been"saved"while"lowering"the"environmental"damage.""In" addition"it"was"known"that"protecting"back"up"power"supplies"would"be"integral"to"avoiding"a" nuclear"incident"" " " " [1]$2" " 3)+Ethical+issues+raised+ " 3.1"Executive"authority"&"mismanagement:"the"rights"given"to"a"person"or"group"to"exercise"power" on"behalf"of"the"company."The"ill"effects"that"occur"when"expert"authority"is"overridden"by"executive" authority." 3.2"Expert"authority:"Possession"of"skills/knowledge"that"allows"person"to"determine"the"safety," benefits"and"negative"impacts"of"a"project." 3.3"Ethical"Code"of"conduct:"the"moral"responsibilities"the"company"has"predefined"for"all" employees"to"obey,"for"the"safety"of"all"those"involved"as"well"as"stressing"the"responsibilities"of" employees,"and"supporting"the"freedom"needed"to"meet"them." 3.4+Aviation"model:"Identifying"errors"so"they"are"less"likely"to"occur"again,"as"well"as"crew"resource" management,"whereby"an"environment"for"respectfully"questioning"authority"is"allowed"to"avoid" major"disasters"as"well"as"highlighting"potential"problems"so"they"can"be"dealt"with." 3.5"Teological/consequentialist"approach"to"design,"there"are"only"problems"if"the"outcomes"are"bad." Utilitarianism:"every"act"is"judged"according"to"its"effects"and"so"the"act"with"the"most"beneficial" effect"is"chosen." " 3.6"The"damage"to"the"Fukashima"plant"could"have"been"lessened"if"not"avoided"were"it"not"for"the" irresponsible"management"in"charge"of"the"plant."All"six"of"the"reactors"were"designed"by"the" American"company"General"Electric"and"the""mark"I"(reactors"1^5)"reactors"were"under"commercial" operation"since"the"1970’s""despite"warnings"from"former"GE"nuclear"engineer"Dale"G."Bridenbaugh" (who"left"the"company"in"1976"on"the"basis"of"safety)"on"the"relative"safety"and"design"flaws"of"the" mark"I"reactors"quoted"saying""The"problems"we"identified"in"1975"were"that,"in"doing"the"design"of" the"containment,"they"did"not"take"into"account"the"dynamic"loads"that"could"be"experienced"with"a" loss"of"coolant""[³]".""This"shows"that"expert"authority"was"ignored"on"the"plant"as"despite"severe" warnings,"the"reactors"weren’t"modernized"in"their"40"year"history"which"seemed"to"make"an" accident"almost"inevitable,"especially"as"the"accident"in"question"was"caused"by"a"loss"of"coolant"to" the"core"reactors"making"the"management"seem"even"more"inept.""Furthermore"the"case"of" executive"authority"being"negligent"is"shown"by"the"fact"that"the"IAEA"(International"Atomic"energy" agency,"the"world's"centre"of"cooperation"in"the"nuclear"field)"[⁴]"published"a"paper"on"flood"hazards" to"nuclear"plants"for"river"and"coastal"regions,"highlighting"the"dangers"to"nuclear"plants"in"case"of" tsunami"in"2003:"" " 11.2. Tsunami generating events and the initial coupling of the events to the [⁵] water are not well documented in the literature and there is still much research work to be done. Sites that are not severely affected by tsunamis should therefore be preferred. However, if a nuclear power plant is to be located in an area that could be subject to tsunamis, a conservative analysis of the potential effects produced by tsunamis should be performed and the plant should be designed for a design basis flood with a probable maximum tsunami taken into consideration. In certain cases also a severe tsunami having a given mean return time should be considered in the combination of events for evaluating the design basis flood. The assessment of the probable maximum tsunami should be sufficiently conservative in nature to ensure that the plant will be adequately protected against all the potential effects of a tsunami." "3" " Where"it"lists"that"the"maximum"probable"tsunami"should"be"taken"into"account"when"making" defences,"despite"this"TEPCO"conservatively"estimated"that"there"would"only"be"a"max"height"of" 5.4m"[⁶],"causing"even"more"damage"when"the"tsunami"realized"a"height"of"14m"making"the"sea" wall"effectively"useless."This"is"made"even"more"senseless"by"the"fact"that"Japan"is" geographically"located"on"4"tectonic"plates"and"is"situated"at"one"of"the"world’s"most"tectonically" active"regions"and"frequently"has"earthquakes"of"magnitude"6.0"and"above,"which"means"the" likelihood"of"tsunami’s"is"higher"than"almost"anywhere"else"in"the"world." " 3.7"Furthermore"this"portrays"the"company"as"taking"an"consequentialist"view"of"the"plant"as"they" were"unwilling"to"make"any"changes"to"the"plant"and"their"approach"despite"evidence"that"it"could" be"fatal"and"have"effects"that"would"cause"unprecedented"damage"to"the"surrounding"area"and"in" lieu"of"being""found"guilty"of"previously"falsifying"safety"reports"[⁷].""Whereas"in"the"aftermath"of"the" event"the"company"has"created"a"new"structure"of"management""with"the"intention"of"‘striving"to" further"improve"the"objectivity"and"transparency"of"our"management.’"[⁸]and"within"this"new" structure"has"created"new"offices"for"Nuclear"safety"and"Social"communication."Allowing"employees" to"notify"senior"management"of"their"concerns"on"the"plant"with"a"recorded"log"so"that"in"case"of" another"accident"there"will"be"records"of"negligence"by"management.""this"new"structure"seems"to" have"been"partly"influenced"by"the"aviation"model"which"would"have"been"very"beneficial"in" avoiding"the"disaster"if"it"was"employed"earlier"as"it"would"have"given"the"nuclear"staff"ways"of" notifying"senior"management"of"safety"issues"without"fear"of"backlash."In"addition"to"this"it"would" have"avoided"the"hierarchical"structure"often"very"prominent"in"Asian"countries"whereby"employees" are"unable"to"criticize"their"seniors"(for"fear"of"being"disrespectful),"which"in"turn"would"have"led"to" the"safety"within"the"plant"as"the"aviation"model""provides"solutions"to"technical"and"ethical"issues" without"placing"blame."" " I f"a"more"utilitarian"approach"had"been"adopted"earlier"by"TEPCO"and"had"been"rigorously"enforced," the"plant"would"not"have"avoided"a"meltdown,"and"opposed"to"the"consequentialist"stance"its"seems" TEPCO"had"taken,"there"are"a"lot"more"benefits"and"a"reduced"risk.""The"consequentialist"approach" was"very"negative"for"the"safety"and"integrity"of"the"plants"staff"as""TEPCO"in"2007"had"been"found" guilty"of"falsifying"safety"data"(199"cases"over"the"course"of"2"decades)"[⁹]"showing"they"were" unwilling"to"make"any"changes"until"they"were"caught"wrongdoing"which"was"one"of"the"key"factors" at"the"Fukashima"meltdown,"as"their"main"focus"was"profit"so"it"would"be"uneconomical"short"term" for"them"to"make"the"necessary"safety"revisions.""It"was"led"to"believe"that"all"the"safety"data"on"the" plants"was"up"to"date"however"when"the"tsunami"occurred"it"was"shown"that"the"accident"was" almost"inevitable"due"to"how"poor"the"safety"standards"were."Furthering"this"point"were"the" prevalent"uses"of"out"of"date"equipment"such"as"the"diesel"generator"which"was"identified"in"1990"[¹⁰]," 21"years"prior"to"the"accident,"as"being"vulnerable"under"earthquakes"and"would"likely"fail"(which"it" did)"causing"a"failure"of"cooling"systems"causing"the"nuclear"event."A"utilitarian"approach"would"have" avoided"these"problems"and"the"eventual"accident"as"the"most"up"to"date"technology"would"have" been"used"as"it"would"provide"the"most"beneficial"effects"for"the"greatest"number"of"people,"i.e." civilians"wouldn’t"have"to"evacuate"their"homes"due"to"radiation"leaks"and"fishermen"wouldn’t"lose" their"livelihoods."Additionally"this"approach"would"also"reduce"the"likelihood"of"conflicting""interests" between"expert"authority"and"executive"authority"as"their"goals"would"be"more"aligned"due"to"the" fact"they"would"be"focused"on"providing"the"finest"service"for"customers"and"building"the"best"4" " nuclear"plant"possible"as"it"would"do"more"good"and"have"less"maintenance"problems"and"safety" issues." " An"distinctive"ethical"code"of"conduct"which"employees"could"refer"to"under"moral"duress,"would" have"also"diminished"the"culture"of"negligence"as"well"as"avoiding"conflicts"of"interests"which" created"of"disaster"and"prevent"a"future"accident."As"before"the"accident"the"only"way"for"employees" to"voice"concerns"was"to"report"to"NISA"(Nuclear"and"Industrial"Safety"Agency,"Japans"former" regulatory"agency)"however"this"was"redundant"as"the"agency"was"supposed"to"provide"oversight"on" nuclear"industrial"operations,"yet"it"was"under"Japans""Ministry"of"Economy,"Trade"and"Industry," which"was"pro^nuclear"energy."Thus"causing"a"huge"conflict"of"interests"as"the"ministry"would"look" better"if"there"were"fewer"nuclear"incidents"making"NISA"complicit"in"TEPCOs"cover"ups[¹¹]"and"thus" lowering"their"capability"to"enforce"nuclear"regulation"and"in"turn"being"a"cause"of"the"meltdown." Whereas"if"an"ethical"code"of"conduct"was"enforced"similar"to"those"set"by"the"British"institution"of" mechanical"engineering"with"rules"that"are"clear"in"how"employees"are"supposed"to"deal"with"ethical" issues"such"as""‘when their professional advice is not accepted, take all reasonable steps to ensure that the person overruling or neglecting that advice is aware of any danger or loss which may ensue from such over-ruling or neglect and in appropriate cases, to inform that person’s employers of the potential risks involved.’"[¹²]"."This"would"provide"the"company"with"standards"that"everyone"would"have"to"adhere" to"as"part"of"their"contracts"with"the"company"and"so"if"there"were"any"ethical"issues"such"as"those" of"safety"within"Fukashima,"they"can"be"dealt"with"quickly"and"according"to"the"guide"encompassed" by"the"code."In"turn"reducing"the"possibility"of"engineers"being"liable"on"safety"issues,"and"would" force"administration"into"creating"a"culture"of"ethical"excellence." " Ethical(decision(tree(( This"ethical"decision"tree"could"help"provide"a"framework"for"decisions"within"TEPCO"in"the"future." ""(((((((((((((((((((((((( NO" Is"this" decision" legal?" Then"action" Cannot"be" carried"out" NO" YES" Is"shareholder" value" maximized"by" action?" YES" Is"it"ethical?" (what"effects"would"be"taken"on"people," the"environment"as"well"as"customers." What"action"benefits"the"largest"group"of" people)" Would"it"be"unethical"to"not"take" action?" (what"effects"would"be"taken"on" people,"the"environment"as"well"as" customers."What"action"benefits"the" largest"group"of"people)" " YES" NO" NO" YES" Do"it." Do"it." Don’t"do" it." Don’t"do" it."5" (" " 5)+Conclusions+ " From"this"case"it"can"be"established"that"there"are"many"ways"in"which"the"disaster"could"have"been" totally"avoided."If"there"were"more"avenues"for"employees"to"register"their"concerns"on"the"safety" risks"and"ethical"conduct"of"the"company"according"to"a"code"of"conduct,"the"company"would"be"less" likely"to"indulge"in"behaviour"that"could"harm"people"or"the"environment."Furthering"this"point" would"be"the"adoption"of"more"utilitarian"approaches"to"company"ethics"as"the"company"simply" couldn’t"ignore"the"safety"issues"regardless"of"monetary"benefits"because"of"the"huge"damage" potential."These"approaches"would"ensure"that"TEPCO"could"still"thrive"while"lowering"hazards," while"avoiding"conflicting"interests"as"safety"would"always"be"a"main"priority,"as"it’s"the"area"most" integral"to"causing"the"greatest"benefit"for"the"largest"number"of"people."Therefore"it"can"be" suggested"that"expert"authority"should"have"more"responsibility"within"company"policy,"allowing"a" more"balanced"constructive"approach"to"energy"distribution"and"safety. " " 6)+References+ 1. Map"adopted""from"http://knowtsunami.blogspot.jp/p/tohoku^earthquake.html"."" 2. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2011/usc0001xgp/#details" 3. Article"by"Matthew"Mosk"on"Nuclear"reactor"issues,"2011"http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/fukushima^mark^ nuclear^reactor^design^caused^ge^scientist/story?id=13141287." 4. IAEA"page"describing"it’s"role"in"promoting"safe"nuclear"energy,"http://www.iaea.org/About/"" 5. International"Atomic"Energy"Agency,"“Flood"Hazard"for"Nuclear"Power"Plants"on"Coastal"and"River"Sites.”"P.54," 2004" 6. Fukushima"Nuclear"Accident"Analysis"Report,""June"20,"2012"Tokyo"Electric"Power"Company,"Inc,"P.9" Table"of"tsunami"assessment"background" 7. Article"on"TEPCOs"falsification"of"documents," http://www.cnic.jp/english/newsletter/nit117/nit117articles/nit117tepco.html" 8. TEPCO"corporate"information,"Fundamental"stance"on"corporate"governance," http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/corpinfo/ir/management/gover^e.html"" 9. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/02/02/national/tepco^must^probe^199^plant^check^coverups/"" 10. Severe"Accident"Risks:"An"Assessment"for"Five"U.S."Nuclear"Power"Plants"—"Final"Summary"Report"(NUREG^1150," Volume"1)"chapter"9,"section"9"first"paragraph"http://www.nrc.gov/reading^rm/doc^ collections/nuregs/staff/sr1150/v1/" 11. Article"on"the"findings"by"Diet^commissioned"investigators""in"wake"of"Fukashima" https://ajw.asahi.com/article/0311disaster/fukushima/AJ201207060056" 12. The"Institution"of"Mechanical"Engineers,"Code"of"Conduct,"Extract"from"the"Institution’s"By^Laws,"issued"9"April" 2008,"section"CR"4.2" 13. Harvard"Business"Review,"The"Ethical"leader’s"Decision"Tree,"By"Constance"Bailey"P.2."