Writing the assignment Writing the assignment Writing an assignment requires that you fit your argument and key points to certain academic conventions. Academic writing – whether it is in the form of an essay, a report, a thesis, or a literature review – contains distinct parts, each with distinctive functions:  Introduction  Body (made up of paragraphs)  Conclusion or summary  A list of references Writing the introduction An introduction acts as a ‘roadmap’ to your reader. It helps them to understand where you are going in your assignment, how you will get there, and what they will see along the way. There are several distinct parts to an introduction, and they are as follows: Introducing the topic or subject area The main aim of the first part of any introduction is to introduce the topic or subject area, and the most important concept(s) relevant to answering the question. Aim or purpose The introduction also needs to indicate your aim(s) or purpose in the assignment. Structure or overall plan You need to signal how you will present information in the assignment. In what order will the key points appear? This gives the reader an indication of what to expect. Limits or scope of the assignment You may want to include mention in your introduction of any limits in your assignment. What will you emphasise? Due to space, will you be intentionally leaving anything out? Argument or thesis statement The final part of the introduction needs to clearly identify your argument or thesis statement. Some useful ways to signal your argument include: ‘This paper argues that…’; This essay contends that…’; ‘It will be argued that…’. Writing the conclusion The conclusion is simply a summary of all your main points discussed in the essay. It brings together all of the main points in a final statement that relates directly back to the topic or question. The conclusion is also where recommendations may be made, your argument is evaluated, or future patterns of change are forecast. Importantly, your conclusion should:  Contain no new ideas or information.  List your key points, briefly.  Relate key points directly back to the question/your argument. Writing the body of the assignment The body of the assignment consists of one or more paragraphs structured to reflect your critical thinking about the question and the chosen order for presenting your argument. The order of your paragraphs can be a logical sequence, a chronological sequence, a clustering of closely related ideas, a juxtaposition of opposing ideas, or in terms of importance. Paragraphs Every paragraph will have a similar structure, and functions like a ‘mini-essay’. It should have an introduction (topic sentence), a body, and a concluding sentence. Each of these has a distinct function: Many drafts may be produced before an assignment is complete. This requires that you leave sufficient time to reflect upon your ideas, and edit your work. References  Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan.  Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006). A Guide to Learning Independently (4th ed.). Australia: Pearson Education.  A topic sentence (usually the first sentence of the paragraph) states the key point of the paragraph. It is this point around which the rest of the paragraph is organised.  The topic sentence is followed by the ‘body’ of the paragraph. This can contain explanations, evidence and examples to support the key point of the paragraph. Supporting evidence is used to justify, explain or develop your argument.  A concluding sentence links the main idea of the paragraph back to your argument, and therefore to the assignment topic/question. Topic sentence Supporting sentences Concluding sentence Writing in the third person Writing in the Third Person Voice and personal pronouns All pieces of writing have a “voice” or point of view, as if someone is talking to the reader. I, Me, My, We, Our. First person: the writer is the subject of the writing. You, your. Second person: the reader is the subject of the writing. She, he, it, they. Someone else is being spoken about. Academic Writing and Objectivity The voice you write in is dependent upon the type of writing you are engaged in. Although trends may be changing, you are often required to write in the third person. Academic writing is formal in tone and is meant to be objective. This means that the focus is on the wri ti ng rather than the writer, so the voice is “this essay”, “this literature review” or “this report”. Objectivity requires that the paper you are writing should not be a piece of personal opinion, “I think,” or, “We believe,” but substantiated by research, giving evidence from scholarly works you have read. So you would use phrases such as, “Research suggests that…”, “Smith and Jones (2010) argue that…” “I” and “We” disappear from academic writing. Here are some examples… First person… becomes third person I argue that… This essay argues that… We researched the issue of… The group researched the issue… I used semi structured interviews as my methodology… The chosen methodology was semi structured interviews… After this I will analyse topic x… Subsequently, topic x will be analysed… I found that… It was found that… We thought the results were… The results appeared to be… Second person… becomes third person You can read further about this is the work of Smith and Jones (2010). Further discussion of this topic is found in the work of Smith and Jones (2010). You may find it difficult to replicate this experiment. Replication of this experiment may be difficult. Your reading will be more effective if you have a study plan. Use of a study plan will improve the effectiveness of one’s reading. Being Specific Although personal pronouns such as she, he, it and they are writing in the third person, they can confuse the reader if used near the beginning of a sentence. Try using a noun at the beginning instead:  The interviewees were… (rather than “they” were).  The chemical reaction took place straightaway… (rather than “it” took place).  The staff nurse ensured the wound was… (rather than “she” ensured). Voice and Tense Reports, essays and literature reviews tend to be written in the present tense, especially in the introductory sections and could incorporate phrases such as:  This report analyses the…  This literature review provides an overview and critical analysis of…  Evidence, therefore, indicates that… Write methodologies (how you did practical research), results and conclusions in the past tense:  The equipment was calibrated prior to the experiment.  Tension was applied to the bar and at x force it snapped.  The results were analysed by… For types of writing which do encourage the use of the first and second persons please see the information sheet Reflective W r it i ng . Reference  Northedge, A. (2005). The good study guide. Milton Keynes: Open University.  Image from www.mortsrboardatucla.org Reflective writing Reflective writing Reflective writing in an assignment means you are making a link between your experience and the course content and therefore clarifying the relationship between theory and practice. It allows you to become aware of your own values and belief system and any assumptions you hold to support those. Generally reflective thinking and writing is part of a larger process of reflective learning which means you become aware of:  how you learn,  how you might apply concepts to practice,  what you do well and,  what you need to improve upon. When learning new information we try to fit it in with what we already know. At first, we may find this new information very unfamiliar or it may change our ways of thinking about something. This new information may be applied or tested in a work or assessment experience. For example You may be asked to make connections between your experiences, feelings, and reactions to new information such as a reading, course concepts, a procedure, a process or group work. You may need to apply a particular procedure, or observe an interaction with a patient or client in a clinical setting. In this situation or event, you may be asked to keep a reflective journal or blog recording your observations and reactions to:  what you have seen,  how you feel about what you have seen,  alternative ways in which a practitioner might deal with the situation or,  what you might do if faced with the situation at a future date. Reflective thinking and writing is then used to test the concept and to think about how larger theoretical understanding fits with your experience or assumptions as you work through the various stages of an assessment. Whatever the structure of your reflective writing is, it is important to examine closely your assessment criteria and course profile to see what your lecturer, convenor and tutors expect. If you have been given little structure, there are a few suggestions and questions below to get you started. Reflective writing usually incorporates three distinct sections or parts: Describe the event or experience and closely observe the facts What happened? When did it happen? How did it happen? Interpret what this event or experience means to you What were your feelings at the time? Do you have any new insights? Can you make a connection with other things you know or concepts in the course? What were the (or your) strengths and weaknesses of the concept, process, event or procedure? What is the connection between the scholarly literature and this event or experience? Evaluate the event or experience Did it change your thinking or shift your values, assumptions, or opinions about the event? What else could you have done in the situation or event? Are there any actions that could have helped or hindered the situation? How will you use this information in the future? What is the connection between the scholarly literature and this event or experience? Other Suggestions Try to keep track of your thoughts and observations in note form as close to the event or experience so that you remember your reactions and observations more accurately. Try to be as honest as possible in describing and explaining your responses. Generally use first person perspective in your writing as in ‘I felt’, ‘our group experienced’, ‘this was very difficult for me’, ‘and we were concerned’ etc. However, when you are linking theory to your reflection or providing theoretical justification for your analysis and interpretation, use third person perspective such as ‘As Moon (2006) explains, reflective thinking adds a further dimension to your learning experience.’ Reference  Moon, J. (2006). Learning Journals: A Handbook for Reflective Practice and Professional Development (2nd.). London and New York: Routledge. Reflective writing Describe Interpret Evaluate Business Report Business reports vary in their subject matter and length, but their structural layout is much the same as other reports. Preliminaries  Title Page  Acknowledgments The names of people and organisations that contributed in any way to your research and analysis should be mentioned here. This would ordinarily not include participants who were part of your research.  Table of contents This lists everything contained in the report excluding the title page and the table of contents page itself. Page numbers must be included for every section listed. Short research reports of less than six pages (that is about 2000 words) would usually not include a table of contents. However, you should check with your lecturer before submitting your final draft for assessment.  List of illustrations Lists of illustrations, diagrams or tables of figures are provided after the Table of Contents on a separate page with the heading 'List of Tables' or 'List of Figures' or similar.  Executive summary A summary of the scope and purpose of your report, your methodology, main findings or results and the significance of these. The executive summary is written last after you have finalised your main findings. Body of the Report  Introduction This sets the context for the report. State what you plan to do in this report and why you have done this research (aim/purpose/your research question(s), important background information, key terms, and scope of the report.  Findings This is the bulk of the report. It is where the relevant data is analysed, and the main findings of the report are examined. The layout of the findings should be logically organised with each section and sub-section clearly labelled. Competing arguments, interpretations and solutions should be discussed and their relative merits evaluated.  Analysis This section may not always be necessary. But include this if you want to draw aspects of your findings together and present an explicit argument which will provide a firm basis for the conclusions and recommendations.  Conclusion This section is quite brief and covers the significance of the findings and implications for future research or practice. It might also mention alternative research tools or research questions to follow on from this topic.  Recommendations These are included if your research was investigative and your aim to make recommendations. These are based on the findings and analyses. Recommendations can be numbered and placed in priority order. With longer reports, in addition to providing a separate list of recommendations, some writers also prefer to place their recommendations at the end of the relevant sections within the body of the report. Supporting Materials  Appendices Include materials which support your research such as raw data, details of surveys or questionnaires.  Reference List This should include books, journal articles or other texts that you have referred to in your report. Check the referencing style required by your lecturer.  Glossary If your report uses terminology that is specialised then it will be necessary to provide a list of these terms and their meanings in a glossary.  Abbreviations If you use a number of abbreviated terms for names of organisations, programs etcetera in your report, you should provide a list of abbreviations which make it easy for the reader to keep track of what these mean. Report writing Report Writing A report is formal written communication used to provide concise information on a specific subject. It should be structured to guide the reader through the main points. Only relevant information should be included so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the key issues concerned. Business reports, technical reports and lab reports all have the same basic structure. However, check with your lecturer as to the exact requirements for your course. An effective report is an accurate presentation of information and is objective; it is clear and concise and goal directed. It is a structured document with numbered sub headed sections. What follows is a basic report format. The five stage process: 1. Planning - Consider your objectives, the scope or limits of what you need to write, your audience, the methods you will use to collect data or information and a timeline for the completion of each stage. 2. Gathering & analysing information - Examine relevant records, statistics, client feedback, observations, surveys, and research literature. Organise your information as it is collected. Use charts, tables, summaries, or concept maps. 3. Decision making - Make decisions about your findings, for example, what do they tell you? Which are most relevant to your report and where do they lead your thinking? Consider any recommendations or future directions that your findings may suggest. 4. Drafting and writing Preliminary Parts Letter of transmittal (where required) Title Page and Acknowledgements Table of Contents. This page:  gives the structure of the report  shows the logical approach taken to break down & analyse the problem  indicates the specific chapter or section headings for the main body of the report  sections should be numbered and match the page numbers on contents page Executive Summary or Abstract  Conveys the main findings of the report  Condenses all the main points:  aims & objectives (introduction)  the problem (introduction)  the research methods (introduction)  what was found (main body)  what action is required (conclusions/recommendations) Body of Report *Conclusions and recommendations can be combined and usually are in short reports. Introduction - Capture the reader’s attention by stating:  aims and objectives in detail  the problem or situation that prompted this report what the report intends to achieve  any definition of terms  the research methods used in your investigation  the scope and limits  background history, as necessary Discussion - This is where the facts or evidence are presented:  Sections should be arranged with similar material and follow a logical order. Provide headings for each section to indicate the content. Sub-divide sections as necessary and ensure all related ideas are grouped together and supported with relevant visual material.  Graphics can be very useful to show a lot of information that would be too difficult or detailed to explain using words. All graphics that are used should be explained and referred to in the report. Each graphic should be numbered and titled and kept as close as possible to the relevant text. Recommendations - describe a clear course of action and should be carefully considered, able to demonstrate professional competence in a specific situation and clearly aligned with your conclusions Conclusions - provide implications from the content of the report and should be clear and precise with headings (if needed) Supplementary parts References -All sources that have been used must be acknowledged in the report and included in this list  Choose a referencing style and use it consistently; consult a referencing guide if you are unsure Appendices -Additional graphical, statistical or other supplementary material that will help the reader to understand an idea more fully can be included here  Each item should be clearly labelled (eg Appendix 1) and referred to in the report 5. Editing & polishing  Revisit your first plan & terms of reference  Sequence the main issues References  Bovee, C. L., & Thill, J. V. (2005). Business Communication Today. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.  Windschuttle, K., & Elliott, E. (2001). Writing, researching and communicating (3rd ed.). Sydney: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Check:  supporting evidence & referencing style  introduction, body and summary match  recommendations flow logically from conclusions  marking criteria Writing an executive summary Writing an executive summary An executive summary is usually required for Business, Engineering and Science reports or proposals. In academic reports it is often referred to as an abstract and may be shorter in length. It is a fully developed mini-version or overview of the report so it is not merely an introduction. An executive summary aims to: How to write an executive summary  Write the executive summary in your own words, using a formal writing style. Avoid using jargon.  State the purpose/aim of the report. For example, the main purpose of this report is to……  Describe the procedure that you used. The methodology or analytical process used to process the data collected.  Provide the results of the study. The major findings may include a number of sentences.  The recommendations (if applicable) should also provided.  Edit the summary to remove minor points; judgement is required to ensure that the summary is concise.  Remove unnecessary words and sentences. Check accuracy of grammar, spelling, sentence and paragraph structures.  Use formatting and graphics to highlight the message. Clarity of the summary can be improved through usage of bullet points and subtitles in the organisational structure. This will also make it easier for the reader to skim read. -provide a brief overview of the whole report so that executives or managers could read the executive summary alone without the accompanying report. -allow the reader to quickly understand the information contained in the report -persuade the reader that the document is worthy of being read. -provide concise, complete, specific and self-sufficient information that can be understood in isolation. When writing an executive summary remember that:  it is normally not more than a page in length and should provide an adequate representation of the entire document in a shortened form.  it is presented on a separate page at the beginning of the report before the Table of Contents.  an impersonal writing style is used so as to ensure that the report remains formal especially if the audience is your manager or supervisor.  at least one sentence is provided for each main section of the report  the key points in the executive summary should be presented in the identical order as they appear in the report so as to encourage logical flow and cohesion.  it may be useful to write it after you have written the whole report so that it more accurately reflects the content of the report.  it is advisable to avoid recycling sentences or paragraphs from the body of the report as this can be repetitious for the reader.  it is worth checking with your lecturer or tutor about the word length. Generally, the executive summary can be approximately 10% of the total word length. Remember to look at ‘Report writing’ and ‘Writing in the third person’ for more information about making strategic and useful notes. References  Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V.(2005). Business Communication Today. (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Kuiper, Shirley. (2007). Contemporary Business Report Writing. (3rd ed.). USA: Thomson South-western. Executive Summaries What is it? A summary that condenses the aims, objectives, main findings and recommendations (if it contains solutions or a correction plan) so your reader can quickly understand the report.[link to summarising] How to do it? Write the Executive Summary after the report has been completed. Set out a series of sentences that:  State the problem  State the purpose or aim  State the main conclusion  State your significant recommendations  Describe the procedures that were used (useful for research reports)  Provide the results of the study (useful for research reports)