21937Assignment 1 writing guide The first assignmentis a professional report of 6 pages. You need to use theoriesas lenses to critically analyse and to better understand a real organisation of your choice and its questionable practices. In this writing guide, you will find examples how to build arguments supported by organisation theories or how to critique practices with the help of organisation theories. Please note, this guide does NOT prescribe the structure for your professional report. It only provides examples and help on how to build well structured, logical, well supported arguments and recommendations. It is a guide to logical writing. Please refer to the guide with Supplementary information on assignments on how to structure the Professional report. Sample persuasive paragraphs Question: Contrast Elliot Jacques' theory of requisite organisation to traditional models of decision-making and organisational design, drawing on an organisational case. Sample first paragraph: In this report, I will contrast traditional organisation designs to those based on Jacques' theory of requisite organisation, drawing upon the notion of decision-making. Traditional models of organisational design (e.g. Porter, 1980) hold that design is primarily contingent upon strategic factors and the external competitive environment. In section one, I will explore the implications of this premise for the control of decision-making throughout the organisational structure, drawing upon Archer (1980) and Dean and Sharfman (1993). In contrast, Elliot Jacques (1990) theory of requisite organisation proposes that organisational design should instead be structured around the developing capabilities of organisational members. I will explore these factors and their consequences in section 2, drawing upon the exemplar of Glacier Metals, an organisation which has implemented both of these models. This exemplar shows, as I will conclude, that Jacques theory provides exciting, if largely untested, opportunities for developing organisational structures which work for people, rather than people that work for structures. Example 2: In this report, I am going to argue that work can certainly be a source of satisfaction and joy for individuals. Indeed, as I demonstrate in Section One, by drawing on Rosen (1988), Clegg et al (2008) and others, managers of modern corporations are explicitly encouraged to design the workplace and motivate employees so that these employees find satisfaction and enjoyment at work. However, work is also a source of dissatisfaction and suffering too and I draw upon Jackall (1988), Knights and Roberts (1982), and Morgan (2006) in Section Two to show the anxiety, subordination and domination that may also describe the experience of work for managerial and non-managerial employees alike. Rather than leave the question here, in Section Three I attempt to explore, conceptually, why work produces such experiences and emotions for individuals. Drawing upon Jackson and Carter (2000) and O’Doherty (2006) I consider the strong link between work and personal identity. Summarising my overall arguments in the Conclusion I illustrate, with the example of Ackroyd and Crowdy (1990), just how complex the relationship between identity, work, and an individual’s striving for satisfaction and personal meaning can be. Example 3: In this report, I am going to argue that it is important to study management and organisation critically for two key reasons. First, it is important to do so because the scope and reach of management and organisation is such that it affects all aspects of our social, economic and cultural life. Second, because the controls that exist at present in large commercial organisations may not be sufficient to prevent negative effects occurring in each of these contexts. In Section One I shall demonstrate the first point with reference both to the role of management and organisation in the current global economic crisis and also through discussing the writings of Morgan (2006) and Klein (2001) exploring the effects and outcomes of corporate power in different spheres. In Section Two, I shall use Milgram’s (1974) experiments on obedience and authority and Jackall’s (1988) study of corporate management, to argue that there are processes at work in large organisations that can inhibit employees, and even senior managers, from reflecting upon and being responsible for their organisation’s behaviour. These two points, I suggest, make it imperative that we look critically at management and organisation. In the final section of this report, I shall consider just what ‘looking critically’ means. I will argue, in opposition to Parker (2002), that being critical in this context is not the same as being ‘against management’, but is instead a commitment to better organisation and better management, a commitment to an idea of organisation where its powerful potential, as envisaged by Knights and Roberts (1982), is realised. Illustrating theory with exemplars and case studies? The paragraph refers to Glacier Metals, an ‘exemplar’ of a company which will illustrate how a company applies theories of organisation. In some ways using an exemplar is part of a larger assignment called a Case Study. Here is a description from the UTS Business Faculty Guide to Writing 2014: It is important that you show you read how theories change. You need to show you understand • that theories evolve and are developed and modified by scholarship over time • that seminal papers (key research read widely and cited often) advance/critique existing theory • not everything is equally ‘true’ and every article has a specific ‘contribution’ that advances the literature (i.e. changes the theory). Recommendations on elements of professional reports 1. A good title Here are some general principles to guide your choice: o A title’s purpose is to attract a potential reader, and to help make the work discoverable through electronic searching. o An effective title should include the main key words which indicate the topic area(s) of the work. That is, the title needs to convey WHAT the work is about. o As well as the main key topic words, an effective title can also include something about WHY or HOW the work was undertaken, and/or indicating what were the significant or distinctive findings from the work – or SO WHAT. o It can be useful to separate the title into two segments – the WHAT segment, and the SO WHAT segment – with the two parts separated by a colon. This can convey a significant amount of detail to help the reader determine whether the work is likely to be interesting for them. o For a title to endure, it may be advisable to avoid titles which depend upon local knowledge or highly topical events or issues. Example: ‘J.P Morgan Chase through the Lens of Contingency and Institutional Theories’ 2. An introduction An introduction will normally comprise at least one full paragraph or up to several paragraphs for longer assignments. Introductions often achieve several purposes, as demonstrated in the example below, although not all these stages are necessarily present in every introduction. Most introductions also include a statement of the ‘thesis’ or point of view that the assignment will argue. Often lecturers will prefer you to include such a statement to help them understand your assignment better. Example introduction: Here is an example from a student assignment: With an increasingly integrated global playing field in which organisations operate, the role of management is becoming even more important and complex. Past Organisational Management Theories have emphasised universal ways of organizing, however in more recent years we are seeing a greater emphasis on the ability for organisations to change and adapt to the demands of turbulent external environments. Using Virgin Australia Airlines as a case organisation this paper aims to explore the complex nature of organisations and related management issues using both Contingency Theory and Dynamic Capabilities Theory to guide this exploration. 3. Brief description of a chosen organization Example: Virgin Australia Airlines (Virgin), formerly Virgin Blue Airlines, is a publicly owned company that was founded in 2000 by Richard Branson and former Virgin Blue Airlines CEO Brett Godfrey. Having started with merely two aircrafts operating on a single route Virgin now holds the position of second largest airline in Australia, behind Qantas. [details omitted] Virgin originally operated as a low-cost carrier however in later years altered its business model to become a (self-described) “New World Carrier”. This new business model offers consumers choice, whilst still offering their ‘no frill’ option, Virgin now provide their passengers the option to pay more and receive the full array of services as offered by other airlines such as Qantas. Since 2010 the organisation under John Borghetti, former Qantas Executive General Manger has since seen their new business model achieve strong growth. 4.Definitions of theories used and why they are chosen as a lens to analyse the organization As stated by Miles (2012) Contingency Theory suggests that ‘there is no one best organisational structure; rather, the appropriate organisational structure depends on the contingencies facing the organisation’ (Miles, 2012). Miles goes further to challenge traditional theories that advocate …[details omitted]. Contingency Theory is one that is particularly relevant to Virgin which has adapted its business structure in an attempt to …[details omitted].. 5. Example: how to build acritical review of papers Example of part of a summary of ONE paper. The theme is contingency theory: Contingency Research in Operations Management Practices by Sousa and Voss (2008) highlights the need to assess practices not purely upon the value of those practices but instead on the ‘contextual conditions under which they are effective’ (Sousa and Voss 2008, p.XX). To further develop the operations management field, they argue for more empirical contingency research to provide ….[quote omitted] (Sousa and Voss 2008, p.XX). Sousa and Voss also demonstrate that contextual factors are a significant influence on the use and performance outcomes of operations management practices, highlighting the need for a more sophisticated contingency theory. [Quote omitted], (Sousa and Voss 2008, p. XX). 6. Description of how theories reveal insights into the organization/its practices Example (excerpt): When using the lens of contingency theory to understand management and overall organisation structure you can see the importance for organisations to thoroughly understand both the local and global environments in which they operate. Virgin has recently had to deal with concerns regarding its number one competitor, Qantas, pushing for …. 7. A critique of the limitation of theory Example (excerpt) Both contingency theory and dynamic capability theory face several limitations in illuminating key organisation issues. Both theories place strong emphasis on an organisations ability to be …. One large limitation is as these theories are contingent upon change and unforseen circumstances there is …. 8. Possible differences in perspectives associated with those theories. How MIGHT different stakeholders in a company describe the management and/or organisational issues they see with this same organization? Example Although the complete alteration to the Virgin Australia’s business model and the rebranding of Virgin Blue Airlines was ultimately an effort to improve the company, it was likely to be perceived differently by various stakeholders in the organisation. The introduction of … saw a complete refiguring to the organisational structure and direction. This change evoked disturbance among executives with a number of key Qantas staff ... 9. What kinds of personal knowledge and capability do you suggest will be needed to address these questionable practices? This is an open ended invitation to explore – there are no set texts for this question (200 words). Example (excerpt) In order to minimize any negative perceptions toward Virgin’s contingent style of management and dynamic capabilities, open communication is pivotal. It is important for an organisation’ leader to…. A manager needs to understand …. 10. Conclusion Elements: • Summary of how the assignment has furthered our understanding of the topic • Summary of the key insights and arguments covered • Implications for future practice and/or future research. Example: Contingency theory helps to understand how internal and external factors drive change …. In addition the lens of Institutional Theory provides more accurate understanding of the organization and the tensions existing within and between its divisions. Theory can shed light on …. By creating effective practices to be able to scan, respond and transform organisations strategies dependent on environment and market, an organisation will be far more likely to remain competitive. 11. Use of in-text references and a reference List Every source you read and summarise must be referenced in Harvard-UTS style, or in APA style. For more information on these styles see • UTS Library Guide to Harvard-UTS Referencinghttp://www.lib.uts.edu.au/help/referencing/harvard-uts-referencing-guide • RMIT Guide to APA: http://www.rmit.edu.au/browse;ID=8rwjnkcmfoeez;STATUS=A;SECTION=3;PAGE_AUTHOR=Rhonda%20Thomson The reference list includes EVERYTHING cited in the body of the report. It does NOT include other texts or sources you studied but did not refer to in the report. Example: Meyer, J. and Rowan, B. 1977, ‘Institutional organisations: formal structure as myth and ceremony’, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 83, pp. 340-363. Monash University, Language and Learning Online: Writing in Business &
Economics, viewed 17 April 2014, University of Melbourne, TLU, Faculty of Economics and Commerce resources, viewed 10 April 2014, NB • It is arranged alphabetically, with Author name first. • The first reference is a journal article with information about author, year of publication, name of article, title of journal, volume and page range. • The third reference is a BOOK and only needs Author, Year of publication, book title, publisher and place of publication. • A ‘view date’ and a URL references online material. Year of publication is not necessary if unavailable. Page numbers are not used for html documents. Consult the UTS Library Guide to Referencing for more information. Reference are used to • Build arguments • Illustrate your main ideas • Provide facts and evidence In the following slide you can see how 3 references are combined (synthesized) to build up a picture of layoffs in industry throughout the world between 2001-2002. Note the formatting of the in-text references and in the reference list. General features of good writing 1. Critical analysis The subject expects you to understand theory and be able to apply it well to a real organisation. Michael Scriven & Richard Paul define critical thinking this way: Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. (The critical thinking community, at https://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_thinking.cfm) Applying theory means • Using theory to create better understanding of an organisation • Testing the usefulness and limits of the theory • Identifying assumptions and uncovering hidden or unacknowledged positions (a well known assumption is that downsisingusually improves a struggling business’s bottom line.) • Comparing and contrasting theories and testing them against your knowledge of the organisation. • Judging and evaluating the theories that best make sense of an organisation. • Develop an appreciation of the value (together with limitations) of major Organisation Theories to illustrate these multiple perspectives • Understanding the need for personal discernment and judgement in evaluating those perspectives. Examples of good critical analysis • Applying the theories of X and Y as lenses to analyse JP Morgan Chase’s restructuring in 2012, it becomes clear that different conclusions can be reached about how successful it was. • Institutional theory raises more fundamental questions, for instance there is little consideration within the theory for the competitive pressures between … (Donaldson 2001). • In regards to JP Morgan Chase Institutional theory does not definitively answer the question why the organization moved towards homogeneity with its competitors. • Contingency Theory (Miles 2012) can explains the some of the success of … in an unpredictable environment. FOR MORE ON CRITICAL ANALYSIS SEE THE CRITICAL ANALYSIS POWERPOINT ON UTS ONLINE. 2. Paragraphs with strong topic sentences and well structured arguments Examples of strong topic sentences: Eisenhardt and Martin (2000) explore what dynamic capabilities are and examine how they vary depending on market dynamism. Dynamic capability theory helps to understand how the organization can stay ahead of its competition. Contingency theory has certain limitations in relation to understanding the hierarchy of divisions in the organization. Institutional theory raises more fundamental questions about the competitive pressures faced by different organisations. Paragraphs that provide arguments supported by sources and structured in a logical sequential manner. Persuasive arguments are • well structured – topic sentence is supported with sentences that build an argument • have a mix of your own views and voice and a view supported by expert literature derived from multiple sources. • A concluding sentence that reinforces the writer’s argument Academic language is also important when presenting a point of view and emphasising the logical process of arriving at a convincing conclusion. Example: Promoting dialogue in teams induces two major benefits at the organisational level: problem solving and innovation. First, dialogue helps find a better way to reach a goal; sharing knowledge and clarifying everyone’s role within the team helps solve eventual problems (Schein 1993, Isaacs 1993, Frigotto & Rossi 2012). As employees’ engagement arises, organisations face lower turnover and a significant improvement in customers’ loyalty (Tourish & Hargie 2009, D’Aprix 2011). Second, dialogue promotes innovation by mutual learning (Johnston et al. 2007). Dialogue becomes a creative interaction where participants are open-minded and ready to deconstruct their previous ideas. By empowering their employees through dialogue (Raelin 2012), organisations face a clear enhancement in performance. Notice the features of this paragraph: • The first sentence is a topic sentence. It introduces the paragraph topic and main argument (that promoting dialogue creates two main benefits). • The second sentence addresses the first benefit, and begins with a phrase (‘first’). Note the reference to an expert source of research. • The linking word ‘Second’ addresses the second benefit, whichis supported by evidence. • The last sentence re-iterates (repeats) the arguments and offers a conclusion: dialogue can enhance performance. 3. Argument language • Studies support the view/argument/claim that… • It has been argued by Smith (1990)… • Smith, (1990) Brown (1997), and Wong (2000) agree that… • Critical thinking is vital for assessing the validity of information • The issue of equal opportunity being maintained or disrupted must be considered • Koolmart must be transparent to all its stakeholders • It may be argued that the OTMS system involves harmful ethical practices. • Steps must be taken to ensure…. • Justification of OTMS: the company that cares for its consumers will have better results and long term growth. • Recommendation: the revised OTMS system should be an opt-in system, rather than silent and covert. It should be transparent and follow privacy principles… etc. Note the language of persuasion in the following paragraph. Modal verbs are underlined: Employment downsizing may not necessarily generate the benefits sought by management. Managers must be very cautious in implementing a strategy that can impose such traumatic costs on employees, both on those who leave as well as on those who stay. Management needs to be sure about the sources of future savings and carefully weigh those against all of the costs, including the increased costs associated with subsequent employment expansions when economic conditions improve (Cascio 2005, p. 41) 4. Strong links between ideas within paragraphs and between paragraphs Assessment Criteria You will be assessed on how successfully you achieved the AIMs of the assignment: AIMS of the first assignment: 1. Develop an understanding of the complex nature of organisations and related management issues – i.e. as seen from multiple but often contested perspectives – for example, from the views of executives, middle and front-line management, shareholders, employees, and broader community 2. Recognise that diverse and contested complexity in practical context, i.e. through one organisation (irrespective of size, location or sector) 3. Develop an appreciation of the value (together with limitations) of major Organisation Theories to illustrate these multiple perspectives 4. Understand the need for personal discernment and judgement in evaluating those perspectives 5. Recognise the need for self-awareness (reflexivity) in arriving at and defending your insights into management and organisation issues 6. Demonstrate a critical capacity (i.e. identifying and questioning “taken-for-granted” assumptions) in assessing the merits and limitations of social theories in organisation Marking Criteria Weighting Demonstration of academic and research skills Written expression, including sentence structure, paragraphing, grammar and layout. 7 Substantive content Accuracy of information/data relevant to the topic. Awareness of the strengths and weaknesses of different reference materials as a basis for argument. 10 Persuasive Argument Analysis of the situation +Critical analysis of competing ideas and assessment of implications. 12 Conclusions and recommendations Ability to construct plausible and coherent conclusion and recommendations. 6 TOTAL MARKS 35 Description of a poor assignment: Written expression needs improvement. Poor referencing and/or some basic referencing errors. Basic grasp of theory only, inability to apply in context. Argument/analysis is not always directly relevant or persuasive– lack of critical analysis – i.e. absence of identifying & questioning assumptions. Proper implications not drawn out. Conclusions not comprehensive and do not fully flow from the analysis. Inconsistencies and/or lack of coherence. Description of an excellentassignment: Structure & format of a very high standard. Very few or no referencing errors. Excellent understanding of theory, the aims and intentions, and its development over time to make sense of events and phenomena. Argument/analysis demonstrating insight, originality and critical reflection to a high standard. Full set of logically derived implications. Well argued and constructed conclusions that are clearly drawn from the analysis. The argument is logical and coherent. General Tips Many students struggle in writing essay/professional report style assignments because they may lack experience in academia, do not come from the social sciences area where essays are common, or lack English grammar and language skills. If for whatever reason you feel hesitant about your ability in writing essays/professional reports it is recommended you seek the assistance of HELPS (see above). To help you, here are some of the most common errors made by students in assignments; students seldom make all these errors in a single paper: o Spelling and grammatical errors. o Poor sentence and paragraph structure (one sentence paragraphs or page long paragraphs should be avoided). Typically 20 lines per paragraph should be the maximum and 5 or 6 lines the minimum. o Use of colloquial (slang) and informal language (can’t, don’t, didn’t etc). Your paper is an academic piece of work indicative of a postgraduate master’s level quality. o Poor use of punctuation, commas, full stops, apostrophe and so on.  For example, 1970’s is incorrect, it is 1970s.  Incorrect use of commas can change the entire meaning of a sentence: “A panda bear eats, shoots, and leaves” v. “A panda bear eats shoots and leaves”  As you read your sentence there must be strategically placed full stops, commas and so on. A comma provides a short breath, and a full stop provides a longer breath indicating the end of the point. If someone reads your paper and turns blue, you probably need help with full stops and commas. o The student did not answer the question. Read the question very carefully and plan your answer. o The paper lacked quality research (and included research older than 5 or 6 years). o The paper lacked theory (how old or recent the theory is does not matter). o The paper lacked integration of ideas, concepts and arguments. The paper must have a logical flow. o The paper lacked reflection or reflection was not connected to relevant topic/reading/material. o The student introduced new ideas or discussion in the conclusion (it is too late to open a new line of argument or reasoning in the discussion and comes as a complete surprise to your reader). o Students use dot points or bullet points to present arguments. Do not use dot point sentences here. o References were incorrect (see guide to writing assignments). We only use the Harvard style in this subject. o Incorrect and incomplete references. o Paper is missing page numbers. o Paper is too short or too long. Please ensure the paper has not gone over the word limit. o Paper is missing signed ‘truth in writing’ declaration and a cover sheet with your student details (student number, class, lecturer) etc. Improve Your Academic & English Language Skills: HELPS You can make an appointment with the HELPS (Higher Education Language & Presentation Support) Service in Student Services. HELPS provides assistance with English language proficiency and academic language. Students who need to develop their written and/or spoken English should make use of the free services offered by HELPS, including academic language workshops, vacation intensive courses, drop-in consultations, individual appointments and Conversations@UTS (www.ssu.uts.edu.au/helps). Further information and guides Sample report -http://www.lib.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/attachments/page/essay%20original%20with%20notes_0.pdf UTS 2014 Faculty of Business Guide to Writing Assignments http://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/business-writing-guide-2014.pdf Look at: • Dimensions of assessment pp. 4-6 • What "critical" means (Critical writing p. 11; Reading Critically p. 46) • Examples of essay introductions pg. 19.