Understanding Ageing Table of contents • Aim and Introduction • Theories of Human Development • Theories of Retirement Aim and Introduction Lesson aim To discuss theories of ageing, and to develop an understanding of the different stages of human development. Gerontology is the study of late adulthood and ageing. What do we mean by ageing? Ageing is the process of growing old. It is a gradual biological impairment of usual functioning. These changes have a direct impact on the ability of organs, such as the heart, kidney and lungs and biological systems such as the reproductive and digestive systems, which affect the organism as a whole. What we mean by “old” has also changed over recent years. Due to medical advances, improved hygiene and sanitation, people tend to live longer. Our life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age. It is the average expected life span of an individual. Our life expectancy is dependent on the country we live in, our health, and so on. For example, in countries with high infant mortality rates, the life expectancy will be different than in countries where the infant mortality rate is lower. The length of time that humans live varies from country to country and from time to time. For example, in the Neolithic period the average life expectancy would be 20 years of age. In the early twentieth century, it was 30 – 40 years of age. The current world average is 66.12 years of age. However, this depends on the country in which we live. For example, if you live in Swaziland, the average life expectancy is 31.99 years of age, whilst in Japan it is 82 years of age. The oldest, confirmed, recorded age for a human is 122. However, there have been unconfirmed reports of people living longer. Life expectancy will also vary according to gender and class. There are significant differences in the life expectancy of men and women in France, for example, with men’s life expectancy being five years lower than women’s. Poverty also has a substantial effect on life expectancy. In the UK, the life expectancy of people in the wealthiest areas is on average ten years longer than people in the poorest areas. All statistics include infant mortality, but not abortion or miscarriage. Public health measures have been credited with the recent increases in life expectancy. For instance, the average life span in the United States in the 20th century has increased by more than 30 years. Some 25 years of this increase could be attributed to advances in public health. Besides public health, there are also differences in medical care and diet from country to country. Climate can also have an effect. Life expectancy is also affected by other factors such as: • Atmospheric pollution • Motorway air pollution • Smoking • Genetic disorders • Obesity • Access to health care • Diet • Exercise • Excessive alcohol use • Excessive drug use • Diseases such as AIDS. AIDS has had a negative effect on life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa for example. Population ageing Population ageing is when the age of a country or region rises. The United Nations have said that this process is taking place in many countries across the world. Population ageing occurs when the population’s mean age shifts towards greater ages. The populations mean will increase when the number of children in the populations declines and the amount of older people increases. In Japan for example, in 1950, there were 9.3 people under 20 for every person aged over 65. Whereas, it is predicted that by 2025, the ratio will be 0.59 people under 20 years of age, for every person over the age of 65. There are two main factors involved: • Declining fertility • Rising life expectancy In Asia and Europe, there are a significant number of countries who will face severe population ageing in the near future. It is estimated that within twenty years many countries will face a situation where their largest population cohort will be those aged over 65 and the average age will be 50. The effects of the ageing population On average, in the UK, men will live to be 77.2 and women 81.5. This will have an obvious effect on society. As people are living longer, this will mean that there will be more people who have retired and are no longer working. This has an obvious impact on the economy. There are medical advances, but as people age, their bodies and minds are affected by the ageing process. This is something we will discuss in more detail in later lessons. In economic terms, an ageing population can lead to changes in expenditure in some areas, such as: • Health care: this will increase as the population ages. This could result in higher taxes to pay for the increased costs of health care. • Education: expenses will fall as there will be fewer young people. • Pensions: the state pensions will be affected by the increased longevity of the population. Theories of Human Development Erikson’s theory of Development Erikson developed an eight stage theory of development. He argued that development operates on the epigenetic principle. This principle is that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. We progress from each stage depending on our success or lack of it in previous stages. We develop at a certain time in a certain order which is determined through genetics. If we interfere with this natural order of development, we will ruin our development. Imagine our development as a flower. Genetically, the flower will develop at a certain time in a certain order. But imagine that we try to make the flower grow a petal before it is ready, the flower may be ruined. The same can be said of our personalities and development. Try and make a baby walk before they are ready and we could cause physical harm. Erikson developed an eight stage theory of human development. Briefly, the stages are: Stage 1 – Infancy (0 - 1.5 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Basic trust versus mistrust Significant Social Relationship Mother or mother substitute Favourable Outcome Trust and optimism Unfavourable Outcome Mistrust, fear & pessimism Stage 2 – Early Childhood (1.5 - 3 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Autonomy versus shame and doubt Significant Social Relationship Parent Favourable Outcome Sense of self control and self sufficiency Unfavourable Outcome Over dependency and lack of self control Stage 3 – Play age (3 - 5 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Initiative versus guilt Significant Social Relationship Basic family Favourable Outcome Purpose & direction: Ability to initiate ones own activities Unfavourable Outcome Lack of purpose & objectives, guilt about self assertion, tendency to jump on the bandwagon. Stage 4 – School age (5 - 12 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Industry versus inferiority Significant Social Relationship Neighbourhood, school Favourable Outcome Competence in intellectual, social and physical skills Unfavourable Outcome Sense of social inferiority, lack of intellectual and social resourcefulness. Stage 5 – Adolescence (12 - 18 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Identify versus role confusion Significant Social Relationship Peer groups and models of leadership Favourable Outcome An integrated image of oneself as a unique individual Unfavourable Outcome A confused identity, easily influenced by others, conflicting behavioural roles. Stage 6 -Early Adulthood (18 - 40 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Intimacy versus isolation Significant Social Relationship Partners in friendship and sexual relationships Favourable Outcome Ability to form close and lasting relationships, to co-operate and share resources, also to make career commitments Unfavourable Outcome Social and personal isolation, fear of intimacy & sharing Of more relevance to this course are the final two stages - Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood (40 - 65 years) Psycho-Social Crisis Generativity versus self absorption Significant Social Relationship Divided labour and shared household Favourable Outcome Concern for family, society and future generations Unfavourable Outcome Negative self absorption, lack of social awareness Stage 8 – Late Adulthood (65+ years) Psycho-Social Crisis Integrity versus despair Significant Social Relationship Mankind or My Kind Favourable Outcome A sense of fulfilment and satisfaction with ones life, a willingness to face death Unfavourable Outcome A sense of emptiness and meaninglessness In his view, therefore, each stage of a person’s psychological development involves an aspect of relating to others, and the way in which we cope with each theme has a profound effect on our general social being for the rest of our lives. Erikson’s eight stages extend from the cradle to the grave. For each of Erikson’s stages, there is a dominant social theme or psycho-social crisis which the individual is challenged to resolve, before continuing a healthy pattern of development. Erikson believed that in each stage, there is a task. So for late adulthood, there is a task to maintain ego integrity, that is, to hold on to one’s sense of wholeness but avoid despair (the fear that there is too little time to begin a new life course). To succeed at the final task, the person must also develop wisdom, which includes accepting their major regrets and the inescapability of death. However, some older adults who achieve integrity may feel despair at some stage in the life, as they consider their past. Each stage involves developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature. Erikson calls these tasks crises. For example, a child at senior school has to learn to be industrious and this industriousness is learned through the social interactions of the family and school. The tasks are usually referred to by two terms. For example, infants have a task called “trust-mistrust”. They must learn to trust and not mistrust. This is a balance we must learn. At each stage there is an optimal time. It is useless to try to rush children towards adulthood, which can happen. Also, it is not advisable to slow down their progress to protect them from the demands of life. There is a time when each task is optimal. If a stage is well managed, we will carry away from that stage a virtue or social strength. If we do not do so well, we may develop malignancies or maladaptations, which can endanger our future development. A malignancy is the worst of the two and involves too little positive and more of the negative of the task, for example, a person who cannot trust others. A maladaptation involves too much positive and too little negative, for example a person who trusts too much. Freud argued that a child’s parents influence his or her development dramatically. Erikson also felt that there was an interaction between generations, which he called mutuality. Erikson argued that children can influence their parents’ development as well. When children arrive, this will change a couple or person’s life quite considerably and moves the parent(s) along their developmental path. Also, we may be influenced by grandparents and great-grandparents and they, in turn, can be influenced by new additions to the family also. An example of mutuality A teenage mother is still an adolescent. She may cope well with having a child, but she is still finding out who she is and how she fits into society at large. She may have a relationship with the father, who may also be a teenager, so is again struggling with how HE fits into society. The baby will have straight forward needs that infants have. One of these is that his parent(s) will be mature enough to look after him or her and that the mother will have the social support she needs. The mother’s parents may help. They may then be influenced along their own developmental tracks, as they are suddenly back caring for a baby, when they had thought they had moved beyond that stage, but were not yet ready to become grandparents. They may find the role demanding. Clearly, their lives are all intertwined in a complex way. However, to ignore the way they mesh together, can be to ignore vitally important changes in a person’s personality and development. Therefore, Erikson’s potentially greatest innovation was to have eight stages which start from birth through three stages of adulthood. We do not stop developing, so it seems right to extend theories of development to cover our later ages. In Late Adulthood, the adult is confronted with tasks of finding integrity, for example. If they do not achieve integrity, it can result in a crisis of despair. In many societies, there are transitions as a child moves from adolescence to adulthood, such as, leaving school. Without this, a child can have role confusion about their place in society and the world. The same can occur when an adult leaves work, grows older, and so on. They will have a similar rite of passage when retiring. Too much ego identity can mean that a person is so involved with a particular role that there is no room left for tolerance. So, a favourable outcome to late adulthood would be for the elderly person to find a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction with their own life, a willingness to face death. An unfavourable outcome would be that they find their life meaningless or empty. Levinson Daniel Levinson also developed a theory of adult development. He interviewed men and women. He proposed a theory based on stages that adults go through as they develop. At the centre of his theory is the idea of Life Structure. This is the underlying pattern of an individual’s life at a particular time. An individuals’ life structure is shaped by their physical and social environment. Their structures typically involve work and family, but other factors can be involved such as: religion, economic status, race, and so on. Levinson developed four cycles: • Pre-adulthood • Early adulthood • Middle adulthood • Late Adulthood Men: In early adulthood men tend to begin careers and families. At the age of around 30, they may evaluate themselves, settle down, and work towards career advancement. There is another transition around the age of 40, when they realise some ambitions will not be met. During middle adulthood, men will deal with their individuality and work, cultivating assets and skills. In late adulthood, they will reflect upon their successes and failures and enjoy the result of their lives. Women: He found that women tend to go through the same cycles as men, but that their stages tend to be closer to the family life cycle. Theories of Retirement Disengagement theory Disengagement theory looks at ageing as a process of mutual withdrawal, where older adults voluntarily slow down. They do this by retiring, stopping work, and so on, as expected by society. This mutual social withdrawal is thought to benefit society and the individual. The theory is focused on the psychological processes that lead to reduced involvement in the social environment. Retirement generally leads to a sharp decline in social interaction, reduced life space, and a potential loss of self-esteem and morale. According to Disengagement Theory, not all older people experience these difficulties. Activity theory Activity theory sees a positive correlation between keeping active and ageing well. It holds that mutual social withdrawal goes against the ideas of activity, energy and industry. Neither model has been shown to be superior to the other. Hence, growing old can mean different things to different people. People who have been active in their younger lives will probably remain active as older adults, but those who were less active may become disengaged as they get older. The Activity Theory suggests that when a person retires they change one form of activity for another. There is a natural inclination for many elderly people to associate with others, but participation in groups and community affairs can be disrupted by retirement. Disengagement and re-engagement are counterbalancing tendencies. With the disengagement theory, the person relinquishes their social roles, whilst with re-engagement they adopt new social roles, which prevents disengagement, social isolation, loneliness, and so on. Atchley’s model of retirement Robert Atchley developed a six phase model of retirement. Preretirement Phase The worker knows that retirement is approaching. In the years prior to retirement the person will save money, think about what they want to do, and prepare for their change in life. Honeymoon Phase This occurs immediately after the actual event. The person will enjoy their free time and undertake tasks that they have wanted to do for ages. Disenchantment Phase The person begins to feel depressed about life and lack of things to do. They may feel tired and bored. Reorientation Phase This is when the person develops a more realistic approach to their time. They may re-evaluate activities and make decisions about what is the most important. They will set priorities for the next phase. Stability Phase This is where the person develops a route and enjoys it. They may take on some form of routine that helps them to feel happy and important. Terminal Phase This is the end of retirement, when either: a. Illness or disability prevents the person from actively caring for themselves. b. The person decides to seek employment again. As we are retiring earlier, then some retired persons may be fit and well enough to seek new employment. Retirement counselling Given that retirement whether voluntary or otherwise results in a distinct role change for the retiree, some people choose to seek counselling at this time in their life. Retirement is a critical turning point which can be traumatic and can cause restlessness in the individual, rather than rest. Whilst there are pre-retirement programmes, often provided by large companies or local councils for their employees, these do not always provide a broad enough spectrum for many retirees. Also, retirees are often reluctant to involve themselves in these programmes because they believe it marks a transition towards the end of their lives. Counselling in this area tends to follow a holistic approach. That is, the client is viewed as a whole person rather than focusing on their individual problems. Counsellors can play an important role in providing information, discussing meaningful choices, and offering a trusting environment in which the client can feel comfortable raising problems. The counsellor needs to be sensitive to the fact that concerns about retirement may represent anxiety about ageing. Typically, the counsellor will work with the client to assist the client in finding ways to: • Make use of their resources for future requirements • Make their leisure time meaningful, for example, through seeking part time employment, undertaking volunteer work, or engaging in hobbies • Plan wills and distribution of estates • Enrol in further education, such as night school courses • Obtain suitable housing • Establish adequate health and safety measures • Develop and maintain relationships and support networks.