Volume 4 • Issue 2 • 1000148 J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal Research Article Open Access Upadhayaya , J Tourism Hospit 2015, 4:2 http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-0269.1000148 Research Article Open Access Tourism & Hospitality J o u r n a l o f T o u r i s m & H o s p i t a l i t y ISSN: 2167-0269 Keywords: Tourist mechanized mobility; Mountain tourism; Global warming effects; Local responses; Sustainable tourism Introduction This unprecedented growth of international travels in recent time with 1.087 billion in 2013 has benefited mountain tourism, costal tourism and other tourists’ destinations of cultural and natural interests on an accelerating pace [1]. Mountain tourism as an integral part of global tourism has appeared as a romantic idealism for tourists who are dwellers and lovers of mountains. As a major growth center of mass tourism from its surface area, mountain tourism in these destinations accounts about 15-20 per cent share with a total turnover of US$ 70-90 billion per year in the global tourist industry [2]. This share of mountain tourism in global tourism industry is spread in Mountains of all kinds (e.g. Alps, Hindu Kush-Himalayas, Andes and Rocky mountains) which caters one-fifth (nearly 24 per cent) of the earth’s land surface area in a great variety of shapes, climatic conditions, ecosystems and diversity of cultures [3]. Nevertheless, mountain tourism has been facing a number of global challenges for its sustainable development [4,5]. Such challenges namely; [1] managing dynamic growth, [2] global warming and climate change, [3] poverty alleviation, [6] support for conservation and [7] health, safety, and security largely threaten the sustainability of this (mountain) tourism. Among the five key challenges, global warming and its induced climate change have emerged as one of the greatest global challenges in general and also to sustainable development of the UN Millennium Development Goals in particular. Such climate change phenomena is caused by the massive increase of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and water vapor in the atmosphere resulting from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels for energy production, industrial processes and transpor t. The exponential growth in the demand for tourist services coinciding with the growing modern mechanized transportation mobility like cars, trains, ships and flights have made many valleys in mountain regions of the globe as easily accessible for tourists. With such easy accessibility of tourists on mechanized transportation mobility, the tourist mobility component has included tourists’ ecological footprints from the travel to the airport at source area, travel in the air (outbound and inbound) and on surface (ground and water) at transit area and travel whilst in final destinations (e.g. organized tour, travel in car etc.,) [8]. Thus, there are ecological footprints of tourism activities widespread throughout source area, transit area and destination area. This phenomenon is particularly threatening the sustainability of mountain tourism destinations. In this context, the reciprocal close relationship between tourism and environment and the importance of environmental planning and sustainable tourism development planning are being increasingly recognized. As the syndromes of global change, the mechanized mobility has affected the economic, social and political agendas of the globe. It is one of the supplementary collective elements of global warming on glaciers Sustainability Threats to Mountain Tourism with Tourist Mechanized Mobility Induced Global Warming: A Case Study of Nepal Pranil Kumar Upadhayaya* Senior Research Associate and PhD graduate in the Thematic Areas of “Tourism, Conflict and Peace” at the Department of Development Studies, Kathmandu University, Nepal Abstract Mountain tourism is sensitive to global warming and responsible in coping to and adapting with its effects. The fast growing global tourism industry is bound to increase its share from existing 5 per cent of total global CO 2 emissions, one of the high up sources of global warming. The three quarters (as the majority) of this emission is covered by mechanized mobility of passengers (both tourists and non-tourists). The trend of growing ecological footprints of tourists mechanized activities from all kinds of tourism (e.g. mass or alternative) is not only adding to the challenge of global warming but also gradually threatening the sustainability of mountain tourism destinations. In this context, this paper brings its attention towards mass tourism bound emerging mountain tourism destination of Nepal which is bound for high growth on international tourist arrivals. Such a trend is compelling to grow tourists’ mechanized mobility segments in Nepal. The paper focuses tourists’ mechanized mobility induced global warming trend and its related various spatial effects in Nepal Mountains. This paper also finds out the responses of various direct and indirect tourism actors in managing tourist mechanized mobility segments and copings. The innovative responses of the local actors in recent time reveal about the considerable contribution to transform the conventional mountain tourist destination of Nepal into a new form of sustainable tourism destination. The recent mass tourism bound landlocked mountain tourism destination of Nepal and others can learn much from the early matured European tourist destinations of all kinds (e.g. Alps, Andes and Rocky mountains) of Europe and Americas on responding to such negative impacts. The paper finally stresses for the substantial exchange of scientific research information and mutual learning among the mountain tourist destinations of all kinds. *Corresponding author: Pranil Kumar Upadhayaya, Senior Research Associate and PhD graduate in the thematic areas of “Tourism, Conflict and Peace” at the Department of Development Studies, Kathmandu University, Nepal, Tel: 977 1 500053; E-mail: [email protected] Received January 30, 2015; Accepted April 14, 2015 ; Published April 24 , 2015 Citation: Upadhayaya PK (2015) Sustainability Threats to Mountain Tourism with Tourist Mechanized Mobility Induced Global Warming: A Case Study of Nepal. J Tourism Hospit 4: 148. doi: 10.4172/2167-0269.1000148 Copyright: © 2015 Upadhayaya PK. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Citation: Upadhayaya PK (2015) Sustainability Threats to Mountain Tourism with Tourist Mechanized Mobility Induced Global Warming: A Case Study of Nepal. J Tourism Hospit 4: 148. doi: 10.4172/2167-0269.10001 48 Page 2 of 7 Volume 4 • Issue 2 • 1000148 J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal and mountains in Nepal Mountains as Nepal faced from the problems of pollution, deforestation and litter [9]. There are transformations of nonmotorized trekking routes (Note–1) into motorized (mechanized) routes in mountain tourist destinations. It has resulted with increased tourist arrivals. Various literatures [10-19] have paid increased attentions to the need of the sustainability of tourism mechanized mobility system in this regard. In this context, this paper covers the case studies of Annapurna trekking area, Manakamana cable car in Manakamana (Gorkha) and Kathmandu in the landlocked country of Nepal. These studies offer distinct examples of tourist sites which are in the verge of such effects of global warming. In these contexts, this paper attempts to address following research questions on the consequences appearing in mountain tourism and responses shown in relation to the tourist mechanized mobility induced warming effects in Nepal Mountains. a) What are some noticeable spatial impacts of mass tourism induced tourist mechanized mobility? How are such impacts occurring? b) How are the local transport companies responding to reduce CO 2 emission or offset carbon schemes while managing tourists’ mobility on environmental friendly modes? c) What are supplementary local responses being made by other actors in Nepal Mountains to manage and prevent tourist mobility induced global warming effects in Mountain tourism? While addressing above questions, this authors came across some remarkable responses in Nepal Mountain tourist destinations to cope with such effects. A close look at such coping responses in such destinations and their exchange of knowledge can not only be useful learning experience in Nepal but also be beneficial for other mountain tourist destinations in the world which have similar landlocked features as like Nepal. The responses made by transport companies in reaction to climate change in these destinations also reveal the gradual development of an alternative form of sustainable tourism informed by the awareness of interdependence between tourism and global warming effects on mountain tourism destinations. Methodology The author has applied eclectic approach for the formulation of this paper. The qualitative and quantitative information were collected through secondary and primary source of information from the research based work in the year 2010 in Nepal. The secondary source of information included a comprehensive review of relevant published and unpublished literatures, reports and data. The primary source of information consisted of empirical observations through site visits and in-depth interviews with local people, owners and managers of tourist hotels and restaurants and tourism promotion authorities as selected under purposive sampling in Annapurna trekking region and Manakamana (Gorkha) in Nepal. The site visits for data collection in Nepal included destinations like Annapurna trekking region and Manakamana (Gorkha) during September-October 2012. Global Warming Induced Threats to the Sustainability of Mountain Tourism: A Conceptual and Theoretical Foundation Mountain tourism coinciding with global tourism is found rolling through four progressive theoretical platforms (e.g. advocacy, cautionary, adaptancy and knowledge based platforms–Figure 1) in which two earlier platforms (e.g. advocacy and cautionary) clearly indicate and warn against mass tourism stimulated unsustainable tourism practices and its’ resulting negative effects both in economic and non economic areas in which global warming is evidently high up [6,7]. There are a range of crucial elements under cautionary platform (Figure 1) which clearly states about its sustainability threats. These threats from environmental perspectives include destruction of natural environment, exploitation of local resources for outside interests, growing environmental impacts of tourism, etc., [20]. Such elements are hidden reasons for resource degradation, inequity and inequality and can fuel conflict. In relation to the increased global warming and climate change from environmental perspective, a recent report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) brings together a consensus on the state of knowledge on all key researches. It states the clear evid ence of a 0.75°C rise in global temperature and 22 cm rise in sea level during the 20 th century [21]. The catastrophic effects of a superheated world is seen with places that are facing the global warming in different forms of natural calamities like cities deep underwater, frozen continents and the collapse of global agriculture and so on [22]. There are a number of other challenges in various forms (e.g. glacier retreat, melting of permafrost, less snowfall, changes on ugly appearance of mountains due to melting of glaciers, formation of glacial lakes, lakes’ outbursts and devastating floods, slight climate changes, etc.) as accelerated in recent times. The IPCC synthesis also predicts that global temperature could raise further between 1.1 and 6 degree Celsius by 2100 and sea level could rise by between 28 cm and 79cm, more if the melting of Greenland and Antarctica accelerates [21]. This has necessitated giving a closer look in the nitty-gritty of this globally challenging issue. These studies reveal about the fast growing global tourism industry as bound further to increase its share from existing 5 per cent of total global CO 2 emissions in whic h three quarters of the total global CO 2 emissions is caused by passenger transport. Figure 1: Theoretical models of tourism for knowledge on environmental impact including global warming [4]. Citation: Upadhayaya PK (2015) Sustainability Threats to Mountain Tourism with Tourist Mechanized Mobility Induced Global Warming: A Case Study of Nepal. J Tourism Hospit 4: 148. doi: 10.4172/2167-0269.10001 48 Page 4 of 7 Volume 4 • Issue 2 • 1000148 J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal of road plus cable car to reach the temple. The towering temple hamlet came into the sight very slowly as result of one’s own labor of the heterogeneous qualities of physical movement in a landscape imbued with cultural significance [28]. The intake of maximum physical exertion was also a barrier preventing the rapid growth of pilgrims. The start of cable car has greatly induced the mechanization of highways and modern mechanical means of transportation connecting Kurintar. This is clearly evident when there was very few or non of vehicle (photo 1) and now higher number traffic and frequent jam of vehicles in the highway (photo 2). This has triggered the mobility of a significant number of domestic pilgrims as well as international tourists (Table 1). This is ultimately causing congestion, carbon emission, and waste. Motor road constructions on round Annapurna Circuit Trek and increased tourist traffic pressure The round Annapurna circuit trek route (RACTR), a highly popular trekking route with unique natural and cultural attractions near the city of Pokhara in Western Nepal is currently seriously endangered by the massive construction of roads along the Marsyangdi and kali Gandaki river valley (photo 3). The construction of a road in the northern part of the A nnapurna Circuit-through Tatopani to the temple at Muktinath has started to cater the needs of surface transportation of growing tourist traffic. As a resut, the traffic reached to 88,418 numbers in 2010, 85,314 numbers in 2011 and 102,570 numbers in 2012 as continuous increase from the previous years [25]. It has interrupted the pristine natural environment through tourists’ mechanized mobility induced supplementary carbon dioxide emissions and noise and dust pollutions at local level. A study done by Shreekanta Sharma Khatiwada on the impact of road construction in trekking tourism on the round Annapurna trek in 2011 states that the result of road construction gives more negative impact rather than positive [29]. It mentions that the road construction is not really good for the conservation of wonderful nature and culture. The increased trucks, jeeps and bikes coincided with growing number of tourist traffic are creating noise and air pollution and thus irritating the tourists themselves. Trekking trails and motorable roads should be separate and away from each other as the great trekking route like round Annapurna circuit trek needs to preserve by stopping road construction. There is high need to stop the further process of road construction from Muktinath to Thorang pass, from Humde Manang to Tilicho Lake and from Tilcho to Bhimtang of Manang. It will, otherwise, not only increase carbon emission and global warming but also distract tourists. Increased mechanized mobility in Kathmandu valley Kathmandu Valley is the fastest growing metropolitan area in Nepal in the South Asia region. Transport emissions have only strongly influenced air quality but they have also constituted a large portion of gaseous emissions that are linked to climate change. Many studies over the last decade have shown that ambient air in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal is heavily polluted and not in accordance with international standards. The air quality issue of the valley is primarily attributable to a rapid rise in the number of petrol and diesel vehicles and lacking enforcement of vehicles emission standards. In past ten years, the number of registered vehicles in Bagmati Zone has increased by nearly three times. According to the data from Department of Transport Management, around 688,028 vehicles have been registered in Bagmati zone till fiscal year 2013/14, which accounts for 45% of total vehicles registered in Nepal. Of the registered vehicles, 93% are cars and motorbikes, which are generally private. Tourism, one of the major sources of country’s economy, is adversely affected by air pollution in the valley for its sustainability. A survey of tourists in Thamel found that 54% of the tourists rated air quality as either very bad or fairly bad [30] (photo 4). Local transport companies’ responses to offset carbon emission Responding to CO 2 emission in this paper is concerned with changes on awareness, behavior and actions which are used in proactive and reactive approaches to bring positive impacts by managing the situatio ns. In relation to these responses, the first (2003) and second (2007) international conferences on climate change and tourism in Djerba, Tunisia and Davos, Switzerland respectively are global collective ignitions which have comprehensively touched and sensitized this burning issue and provided a framework to protect from the effect of unsustainable mass tourism related mechanized Photo: Author, 2014 Photo 2: Heavy carbon emissions with unlimited vehicles. Photo 3: The popular Mt. Annapurna circuit trek route being motorized as an augmented source of carbon emission. Source: Author, 2014 Photo 1: Low carbon emission. Citation: Upadhayaya PK (2015) Sustainability Threats to Mountain Tourism with Tourist Mechanized Mobility Induced Global Warming: A Case Study of Nepal. J Tourism Hospit 4: 148. doi: 10.4172/2167-0269.10001 48 Page 5 of 7 Volume 4 • Issue 2 • 1000148 J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal mobility and other elements induced global warming on mountain tourism. In this context, the use of electric vehicles in tourism industry is considered as a concrete response. Kathmandu Electric Vehicle Alliance (KEVA) in partnership with Kathm andu Environment Education Project (KEEP–Note 2) undertook a four-month campaign on “Promoting Electric Vehicle in Tourism Industry” in 2005-2006 to understand the impact of air pollution as well as the prospect of electric vehicles (EV) in Nepal’s tourism industry. The activities held as a part of the campaign included: Kathmandu air Quality Survey, Hotel Awareness Campaign and Tourism Awareness Campaign [31]. KEEP Program Report [31] mentions ‘being a zero emission vehicle, less noisy and using recyclable batteries, EVs are one of the most environmentally friendly vehicles in use. Currently, these vehicles serve more than 22 different routes in the mountainous valley of Kathmandu including various tourist world heritage sites.’ The use of electric vehicles to cater the service of both tourist and non tourists demonstrate a strong measure to mitigate the negative consequences of the environmental deterioration by tourists’ mechanized mobility (photo 5). The Supplementary Local Responses to Manage and Prevent Tourist Mobility Induced Global Warming Effects Studies of the damaging effect of the expanding skiing industry in the Alps in the 1970s led to the idea of Sustainable Tourism in practice [32]. With this tangible negative observation caused by the warming of earth surface, some specific responses from sustainable tourism perspectives are continuously initiated. There is a number of following single and joint responses made on proactive approach in Nepal Mountains to create positive effects. The private sector and government in Nepal Mountains have been applying mitigating and coping measures with a number of good practices for policy advocacy and capacity building for sustainable tourism operation and management [33]. Some such responses are highlighted below. Development of alternative non-motorized trekking routes Though there is high stress for the expansion of motorable road networks to connect remote exotic destinations in mountains of Nepal, still the tourism and trekking sector as whole is determined to expand non motorable paths, and trekking and hiking trails to let these areas be free from possible carbon dioxide emissions from the operation of tourists’ mechanized mobility. There are a number of new trekking tails recently added in the total network of such trails. Some of such newly built trekking routes untouched by motorable roads include the Greater Himalayan Trails in upper northern area, Tamang Heritage Trail in central northern area, Chepang Heritage Trail in central southern area, Budanilikantha-Gosaikunda Trek in central area, Indigenous Trekking Trails in central region, and Machhapuchre Model Trek and Ghalekharka Sikles Ecotourism circuit in Annapurna Conservation area in western region of Nepal mountains to cater the demand of growing tourists arrivals [34]. ‘Plant a tree’ or ‘adopt a tree’ scheme for tourists The enhancement of carbon sinks through forestry is recognized in the article 3 of Kyoto Protocol as a mitigation measure. In this context, the Nepal Tourism Board (the National Tourist Organization) in Nepal is involved in ‘plant a tree’ or ‘adopt a tree’ scheme through international visitors’ volunteer involvement to support Climate Neutral Planet Fund-Nepal (Information from interview with Lekhnath Bhusal, Senior Officer at Nepal Tourism Board, Kathmandu, October 2013). This is to compensate the carbon emission either by voluntary planting a tree or paying certain amount in the Climate Neutral Planet Fund- Nepal. Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) declaration on climate change, a high attention to Mountain tourism The cabinet meeting among 23 ministers of Nepal Government chaired by the Prime Minister at Kala Patthar (5,542m) near the base camp of world’s highest mountain Everest (photo 3), held on December 4, 2009 issued a 10-point Everest declaration about the climate change. Its goal is to draw international community’s attention toward the adverse impact of climate change on the Himalayas. This event, held just one week before the global climate summit in Copenhagen, was covered by around 100 international television channels. With the Everest declaration, the government has committed to increase the protected areas in the country from 20 percent to 25 percent and consolidating 40 percent of the total landmass in view of protecting the mountain ecosystem. It also drew the attention of the developed and neighboring states for development and easy transfer of appropriate and state-of-art technologies and investments believing that the development of clean energy in Nepal would contribute to lesson carbon emission also c aused by mechanized tourists’ mobility in this region [35]. Launching of Green Hiker campaign Green Hiker Campaign is World Wildlife Fund – Nepal’s initiative in partnership with Nepal Tourism Board to encourage tourists and tour operators in the Himalayan region to undertake environment- Photo 5: Green Hiker Campaign to opt for sustainability of mountain tourism. Source: World Wildlife Fund Nepal, 2014 Photo 4: Cabinet meeting of Nepal government near Mount Everest base camp (5,542m) as a stern response to global warming in the Himalayas. Photo: Department of Information, 2014