BUILDING RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE ABSTRACT Heat stress is an important threat of the urban areas and has adverse effect over the health of the human and animals dwelling in these regions. Heat stress also has the impacts of igniting and accumulating the factors for the greenhouse gases and climate change to considerable levels, multiplying the effects and threats of the heat stress. Water in landscape and vegetation are found to be effective strategies to mitigate the effects of the heat stress and urban heat islands. Contents INTRODUCTION 5 BACKGROUND 5 Heat in Land Effect 5 Urban Heat Islands 5 Effects 6 Other Impacts 7 Causes 8 Problem in Sydney 9 LIVABILITY 10 Health Effects 11 SOLUTIONS 11 Ways to Mitigate Climate over Heat Effect 13 What Can be Done? 14 Water in Landscape 15 Livability 18 Climate change 18 Social benefits 19 SOLUTION FOR SYDNEY 20 Benefits Of Mitigation Of Heat Island Effect 22 CONCLUSION 23 REFERENCES 24 BUILDING RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE INTRODUCTION Heat stress and urban heat islands suffocate the urban regions with the increased average temperature that increase the adverse effects of the global warming, greenhouse gases and also accelerate the climate change cycle. Urban Heat Islands, where the urban regions become warmer than the suburbs and rural surroundings, caused majorly from the anthropogenic activity and altered surface cover. Global warming and increasing urbanization have direct and severe adverse effects over the human health and is expected to worsen in the future. Most of the reports after studies suggest green and cool urban areas. This report explores the heat stress that affects and accelerates the temperature in the urban regions with relative exploration that includes the various strategies to mitigate the effects and also to reduce the occurrence of the UHI. BACKGROUND Heat in Land Effect Heat affects land with great influence. It is from the fact that the land absorbs more heat energy compared to water. The top layer of the land gets heated when the heat hits the surface of the Earth. Land stands inhabitable place by larger number of creatures that depend over the plants for their survival. When the heat is increased, it increases the global warming and it leads to melting the ice caps in the Polar Regions. Eventually, the ecosystem gets unbalanced. Heat in land affects the environment in many ways. Dry grass and twigs catch on fire very easily, because of the soil erosion, increased proportion of carbon dioxide and risk of forest productivity that is insufficient. Heat lead to drying up of the land and crops get harder time to grow. When the heat is increased, it causes the mountains to be formed over the ocean floor and the land. Solar radiation will be increasingly absorbed by the plants. Urban Heat Islands UHI is considered as an area of metropolitan or city that experience warmer weather, when compared to the weather in the surrounding rural areas and it is usually caused because of the human activities. The difference in temperature is evident both during day and night, but is more prominent during the night. The difference is also more prominent, during weaker winds. The effect of UHI is predominant in both the winter and summer season. Though the major cause for the UHI is majorly by the land surfaces modifications and waste heat that is generated by usage of energy, in the urban areas, there are many other human activities and factors that ignite the effect of the UHI. The area of the UHI is expanded with the growth of the population centre and it results in increase of the average temperature. In simple terms, heat island can be considered as any area, no matter is more populated or not, but hotter consistently compared to the area in the surroundings. The effect of UHI is not seen and experienced by all the cities and metropolitans of the urban areas. Figure: Atmospheric conditions within and external parts of the urban areas, during winter season. (Source: Measures to mitigate urban heat islands, 2006) Suburb and rural areas are susceptible to the radiative cooling that result in temperatures of cooler surface and also water atmospheric temperatures (Alcoforado& Andrade, 2008). The inversion layer in the urban areas is affected. The higher the altitude, the higher will be the atmospheric temperature. It leads to rare atmospheric mixture taking place. So, inversion layer covers the urban area, literally. Air pollution in the urban areas will be worse. The difference in the temperature is usually, in degrees, usually, from 20 degrees in urban areas to 18 degrees Celsius to the surrounding suburban areas. Usually, the people in the urban area are 1 to 3 degree Celsius warmer compared to the surrounding areas. Effects UHI results in many odd and unencourgeable effects to the human kind. The first and foremost effect is the possible increase of the global warming. Researches performed on the UHI effect, in China and India shows that effect of UHI contributes to the climate warming and it is close to 30%. It is only recent report, but before 1999, this effect had a little influence on the trends of the global mean temperature. The studies conducted in this field show the severity of the effect, while the climate change is progressing further. 1. The rainfall in a month would be greater downwind of cities, because of the effect of the UHI. 2. Heat within the urban centres is increased and it results in lengthy growing seasons and also falls of weak tornadoes occurrence. 3. The quality of air is decreased, since the production of pollutants, like one is increased. 4. The difference of the air temperature is larger during the nights than the daytime, between the UHI and the surrounding areas, according to IPCC (IPCC, 2001). It is because the overall results from the atmospheric mixing, the air temperature perturbation would be minimal, though the surface temperatures are increased drastically. When it comes to the skin temperature, the opposite is true. During the nights, solar heating absence results in decrease of the atmospheric convection and the boundary layer of the urban starts to stabilize. Then an inversion layer would be formed, after the occurrence of enough stabilization. Another reason can be block of the sky view that results in the maximization of urban canyons. Usually, the surface of the land loses its heat, during night, because of the radiation upwards, because of the cool sky comparatively. But this radiation is blocked because of the buildings in the surroundings and the heat is retained. The effect of the UI is experienced to be largest during the nights in the condition of radiative cooling is found to be dominant, while the speed of the wind is low and there is cloudless sky. 5. The quality of water is also decreased as the water flown would be warmer into the stream areas that in turn result in stress over the ecosystems. 6. Since the overall heating is affected by the UHI, the rise of temperature of the cities would tend to increase the ozone concentration and greenhouse gas. Other Impacts UHI gives direct effect on the temperature and also show secondary effects over the local meteorology. 1. Altering of patterns of local wind 2. Development of the fog and clouds 3. Precipitation rates 4. Humidity Extra heat generated leads to increase of the upward motion that induce more thunderstorm and shown activities. Additionally, local low pressure area is created and it has moist air relatively. It leads to the conditions that are favourable for the formation of the clouds (Chiel, et al, 2008). Rates of rainfall downwind of cities would be raised from 48 to 116 per cent. The increase of rainfall would be 28% greater in between 32 to 64km, downwind of cities, relative to the upwind. In some of the urban areas, about 51% of increase of total precipitation is experienced (Goddard Space Flight Center, 2002). Causes Urban Heat Island is caused from many factors. Figure: Causes of UHI 1. Dark Surfaces The dark surfaces in the urban areas, such as the roads and buildings tend to absorb the solar radiation comparatively more and significant, compared to the rural and suburban areas. 2. Hard Material Hard material used, such as asphalt and concrete for the roofs and pavements have great properties of the thermal bulk that include the thermal conductivity and heat capacity as well as the surface radiative properties, called emissivity and albedo. For example, concrete holds around the heat that is 2000 times more than the equivalent air volume (Lee 1993).. It causes the energy budget change of the urban area and result in much increased temperature, compared to the rural areas in the surroundings. 3. Lack of Evapotranspiration Lack of the evapotranspiration is because of the lack of vegetation, in the areas of urban. Declined vegetation also result in losing the cooling effect and shades of tress and also in the carbon dioxide removal. 4. Geometric Effects The taller buildings in the cities increase multiple surfaces for the sunlight absorption and reflection, thereby increasing the overall efficiency that eventually heats the urban areas. This effect is also known to be ‘urban canyon effect’. The same taller buildings also block the wind that eventually inhibits the natural cooling through convection and so the pollution present in these areas from dissipation. 5. Infrastructure The infrastructure, such as the buildings equipped with the air conditioning, industries, automobiles and other sources accumulate more heat in the urban areas. 6. Pollution Pollutions that are in high levels in the urban areas increase the overall heating, as various forms of pollution tend to change the atmosphere’s radioactive properties. Increased air pollutant concentration, such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides, affect the quality of the air the next day (Christina, 2004). Problem in Sydney The problem of the heat in land and urban heat island is growing in the major cities, like Sydney, Melbourne, in Australia. Figure: Winter during 1985 to 1994 recorded mean minimum observed temperature (Source: About Climate Analogues, https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/en/climate-projections/climate-analogues/about-analogues/) The areas shown are consistently warmer, with the red color, compared to the suburban areas within Australia. The reason is the retention of the stored heat from today to the next day till the sunrise and it accumulated the warmness within the same region. The report shows the reasons for the increased heat and temperature in the urban regions compared to the suburban regions is because of the urban heat island. The causes of the UHI are reported to be the taller buildings, paved surfaces, roads and the artificial heat released by the combustive processes, from industrial activity, vehicles and heat from air conditioning. LIVABILITY The major problem and effect of the heat in land are simply numerous. Health Effects Heat in land and the urban heat island influence the urban residents’ health and welfare, directly. There are thousands of people die every year, from the urban areas, because of the extreme heat. It is because of the consistent heat waves duration in these areas is more. The rate of mortality is increased exponentially, during these heat waves. Human health effects start from the severe heat stroke that results in severe organ function impairment. Other direct effects of the heat stroke are disseminated intravascular coagulation and respiratory distress syndrome. The ability of the thermoregulation in the human is affected resulting in the awareness, mobility or behaviour. The existing cognitive health issues in the dementia, depression, Parkinson’s disease, etc. would become riskier, because of the affected cognitive performance and all this is because of heat. Violent crimes are increased considerably, to more than 4% and result in more aggressive and irritable behaviour of the people (Li, 2012). SOLUTIONS The difference in temperature is close to 5 degree Celsius from urban to rural areas. About 40 per cent of this heat is because of the dark roof prevalence and the rest from pavement that is dark colour and also because of vegetation presence decline (NYCRHII, 2006). Figure: Mitigation measures for UHI (Source: Measures to mitigate urban heat islands, 2006) The overheat effects of the Urban Heat Islands, such as in Sydney, Melbourne can be mitigated by applying certain solutions. Architectural designs that are going to be held in Sydney in Australia are to be well guided with appropriate guidelines, as the following. Detailed guidelines re to be developed and designed for architectural design for mitigation of the effect of the urban heat island. 1. Shade Shades must be created by planting the shrubs and trees. This planting must be done on western and southern parts of the buildings, as the solar radiation can be intense mostly. The heat that is built-p in pedestrian space must be reduced, especially, by canopies, pergolas and erecting pilots, etc. 2. Surface cover, covering the surrounding area Temperature built at the surface can be reduced and the air above this surface has to be planted through shrubs, grass and turf or through construction of ponds. Area of pavement must be minimized in the vicinity. Pavements’ board areas, like parking lots are to be prevented and it should be specifically done at the western and southern sides, since there would be intense solar radiation. Permeable materials or water retentive material must be used for paving. 3. Material for external construction The material used for paving must be permeable material or water retentive material. 4. Exterior Construction Materials Input of heat into the building must be re reduced through usage of roofing materials that is highly reflective. Exterior walls and rooftops are to be greenfield. Especially, the rooftops used for the low-rise portions related to the walls and buildings that face towards west and south for better and intense solar radiation. 5. Airy and open space Airy and open space has to be created by planting shrubs, grass and trees or alternatively walkways are to be constructed. Height configuration has to be considered carefully. Space and configuration are also to be considered around the building, for example, vertical project area that faces in the direction of the summer wind prevailing should be reduced, so that airy and open space can be created. 6. Release of heat from the building The heat released out in the atmosphere has to be reduced, by considering and following energy-saving measures, especially, in large buildings cases or the ones are in use for longer time periods. Heat should be released from the building’s high-rise portions. The exhaust heat temperature has to be reduced, so that any rise in the atmospheric temperature can be minimized. Ways to Mitigate Climate over Heat Effect Many governments, including the Australian government have taken the remarkable strides to implement the approaches systematically to take the measures to mitigate the urban heat island and its effects (Zinzi&Agnoli, 2011). 1. Green Roofs and Lighter-Colored Surfaces The use of the lighter-colored surfaces and green roofs reflect relatively more sunlight and less heat would be absorbed. So, reflective or white materials are to be used for roofs, roads, pavements, building houses, so that the overall albedo can be increased in the city. Replacing of the dark roofs with the reflective or white material can be least investment of amount, compared to the other ways of mitigation of the heat in land. The reflective material used can be vinyl that reflect minimum of 75 per cent of the rays of the sun and increase the solar radiation absorbing to 70%. Solar radiation can be reduced from 6 to 26 per cent by using Asphalt BUR (Built-Up Roofs). Light color roofs can reflect more than 50% better sunlight and reduce the ambient temperature. 2. Well-Watered Vegetation This option works better, especially, when the green roofs are also implemented. Green roofs can be helpful, being excellent insulators, especially during the months of warm weather and also the plants that cool the environment in the surroundings. It improves the air quality, since carbon dioxide is absorbed along the increase of the concomitant oxygen production . What Can be Done? There can be certain immediate measures that should be done by the Australia’s government. it should aim to promote the urban areas greening, through mandating the urban areas greening. It has to mandate the greening the urban areas. And it has to mandate these processes and promotion of greening. The cost of greening also should be supported through subsidizing the greening cost as well as incentivizing rooftop greening, through grants of higher rations of floor areas to buildings towards, implementation of the same. The urban population are to be provided with the guidelines for mitigation measures and the respective schemes. The building owners are to be encouraged for the proactive mitigation measures, by the Australian government. The following figure can guide what all can be done while building a new structure. Before the measures are to be taken, overall assessment has to be done to estimate the overall effect of the UHI in the urban areas. Figure: Possible solutions for UHI (Source: Measures to mitigate urban heat islands, 2006) The above figure shows the possible solutions for reducing the effect of UHI in the urban areas, such as, Water in Landscape Water in landscape is one of the important ways, where the wind path can be defined and executed. Winds locally circulate or the winds that blow along paths, like the winds blowing from the sea or any water in landscape or even from the valleys or mountains (Kershaw, et al., 2010). Wind paths can, - Bring the cool air from the water in landscape or sea and lower the urban temperatures during the daytime - Bring the currents of cool air, flowing down valleys and mountain slops that cool down the hot urban air during the nights - Help and support alleviation of the air pollution, through bringing winds of clear sea, generally and also the cool air currents Rivers are the best way and best paths to bring the sea winds. So, the water winds can be brought by making the urban design accordingly. For instance, experiments of the wind tunnel are conducted for investigation of how the effects, like relative humidity and vapour pressure over the buildings adjacent to the water in landscape and rivers do vary, with the change of the buildings orientation. Figure: Wind paths along the water in landscape or river (Source: Measures to mitigate urban heat islands, 2006) When the buildings are constructed in parallel to the water in landscapes or river, they tend interfere with the flowing air through the river and it prevents from finding the ways towards the urban districts. When the position of the buildings are at 45 degrees angle with respect to the river, the effects of winds can be contrasting in two ways, based on the wind flow direction along the river. In case the buildings are aligned against the direction of flow of the winds, their movement is deflected. The building orientation channels cool wind from waterfront towards the urban areas, during the summer days, while the cold seasonal winds are deflected from the north, during the season of winter. So, based on the results of the experiments, there are two benefits obtained. Exploration of the wind paths Water in landscape can improve the ecosystem, by controlling the rise of temperature in the urban regions. Sydney is the city located in coastal regions and so the influence of the wind paths of the sea can benefit this urban region. The following two figures show the wind paths during day and night for the water sources, sea and the artificial water in landscapes. During the day Figure: Wind during day, near sea (Living Room Science, http://www.physics.hku.hk/~phys0607/lectures/chap03.html) During the day, land is warmed faster and rapidly than the water. The reason for the rapid heat is because of the specific heat of the land, as it consists of rocks that have lower specific heat. Air above the warm land gets heated and will be less dense and moves in upward direction. Then the cooler air from the sea gets enough place to replace the dense hot air that moved upwards. This effect can be illustrated with the above figure. During Nights During the nights, land cools rapidly and better compared to water, because of the same reason called specific heat. So, water in sea and lasdscape would be warmer relatively and then rises (Schmidt, 2009). The warmer air above the warmer water will be replaced by cooler air passing from the land, called land breeze. The effect can be shown from the figure below. Figure: Wind during night, near sea (Living Room Science, http://www.physics.hku.hk/~phys0607/lectures/chap03.html) The above two processes are called convection. Usually, occurrence of convection is because of the heating of fluid, unevenly. This matter physical flow carries heat all over the system. Livability Climate change Climate change is already in action affecting the societies and eventually, the natural world, on the Earth. Climate change has started interacting with several societal and environmental factors that would intensify or moderate the impacts. The magnitudes and impacts are varied through time and across the global region. The climate change and urban heat islands are mutually impacting each other and multiply the effects. Climate change especially affects the poor, sick, elderly and all vulnerable people. Harm to the world will substantially increase in the future, unless heat trapping gases global emission reduced greatly. UHI increases the intensity of the climate change and all the impacts of the global warming would be additional to the impacts and effects of the urban heat island. Climate change in turn affects water, transportation, agriculture, water and many more. Social benefits There can be many social benefits of the mitigation strategies to reduce the urban heat island and heat in land. A. Health Planting the trees and gardens, in the form of parks, where huge percentage of the urban population can relax can better the physical as well as the mental health of them. It is usually, the only connection they can access the nature. According to previous studies, contact with the nature by the human being can promote the physical health and well-being. B. Empowerment and Community Building Participation of the people in tree planting and similar activities can build stronger communities and empower the standard and relationships among their lives. It is an opportunity for the people to build capacity, come together, opportunity to collaborate, community pride and network among them. C. Food Production through Green Roofs Food production on the rooftops stands to be a lucrative option for the communities that are growing faster. Various plants that can be grown this way can be oregano, chives, lavender, etc., as they are good for Mediterranean climate. D. Wildlife Biodiversity and Green Roofs Green roofs can also benefit the wildlife, as they allow several and varied organisms to inhabit in the plants and garden developed. The more the garden is diversified, the more species, which can be added. Varied plants allow various invertebrate species to colonize. E. Cleaner Atmosphere Trees have the capability to absorb the carbon dioxide and many other pollutants in the atmosphere ( McPherson, et al, 2006). Additionally, they can reduce the emissions of ozone from the vehicles and provide better shade. The urban areas can be cooled from 10 degrees to 20 degrees, by increasing the tree population. SOLUTION FOR SYDNEY Sydney is the urban city, which is located as a coastal area in Australia. So, the wind paths from the sea can be diverted and exploited to mitigate the heat generated excess by the urban heat island. Since Sydney is located on waterfronts, the wind flows from sea water could lower the temperature of the air during the summer. Though there are no statistical techniques made so far to forecast the flow of the winds, urban planning has to take this consideration into account. Urban temperatures can be lowered temporarily by water sprinkling. Since reconstruction of the urban cities would be complex or even impossible task, for city like Sydney, there can be other measures for mitigating the urban heat islands and global warming as the following. - Energy network creation by using biomass energy, ice cryogenic energy and through natural gas cogeneration - Wind power generation construction facilities over the area of the ocean front and that should include readjustment of the land and generation system promotion for photovoltaic power for further new residential housing - Introduction of the system for urban waste heat supply, with the help of the energy sources that are untapped, such as sewage - Environmental considerations incorporation into redevelopment projects that include rooftop greening and building heat insulation - Improvement of the thermal environment concept - Creation of the new wind paths along the rivers along Sydney, such as Hawkesbury River, Nepean River, Cooks River and Georges River - Large scale greening promotion through application of the system of multi-level park, water sprinkling, water-retentive pavement and eco-energy production, from waste, biomass and natural energy, for creation heat and network supplying power to dwellings and businesses - Introduction of cooling and heating concepts of the districts - Use of untapped sources of energy including the urban renewal project inclusion in the areas of urban emergency redevelopment, construction of green spaces and parks along with the railroad network expansion for rolling out the UHI mitigation and global warming mitigation measure - Car sharing program promotion - Promotion of the wind paths, environmentally friendly housing A comparative study has been conducted for Urban Heat Islands, considering three cities, Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide (UCR. 2016). The research initiative with the budget value of $1.2 million has the objective of identifying the strategies that are cost effective to mitigate the UHI in the three cities in Australia. It is an urban strategy, based on the three, for the policy formulation and decision makers to reduce the stress of the heat in these urban regions. The considerations for the project would be material, urban morphology, vegetation, surfaces density and urban energy balance, in terms of anthropogenic and solar. These considerations are the key factors of the effect of UHI and its impact over the use of the public space by the people. The project is going to be implemented on the basis of five scale methodology, across three cities in Australia, taken at macro levels, as shown in the following figure. Figure: Comparative study of Urban Heat Islands (Urban Climate Research, http://urbanclimates.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/UCR-PROJECT-DIAGRAMv.5a-1024x785.jpg) 1. Thermal analysis, facades and walls Individual buildings, micro-meteorology and thermodynamics and relationship between material, surfaces and outdoor re considered 2. Analysis of socio-behaviour It has the aim of achieving the following objectives A. Underline the need for public spaces that are responsive to the climate B. Highlight the microclimate modifications importance C. Identifying the links across the quality or quantities in space that is heat resilient D. Explore possible opportunities for adoption of heat of the public spaces 3. Greenery and policy of urban It considers, A. Nationwide and city research B. Implementing science findings exist in policy C. Effective policy for urban greenery maximization 4. Roof types thermal modelling It takes the considerations of, A. Finding the best mitigation strategy to the best possible drop in outdoor temperature expected B. Heat islands considered at urban scale C. Spatial distribution of UHI and diurnal variation city scale modelling 5. Urban potential retrofitting and precinct resilience The considerations are, A. Identifying the best adaptation techniques and precinct mitigation B. Precinct scale research over the resilience of HW in suburbs and CBD C. Include of vulnerability of population in potential techniques for mitigation adaptation evaluation Benefits Of Mitigation Of Heat Island Effect Both the efforts for reducing the heat island effect and mitigtign the climate change interact both of them in various complex ways. Most of the efforts spent for controlling the temperature riseof the urban heat islands and cooling these regions usually give many benefits as by-products. These benefits are lowering the temperatures, air pollution, harmful health impacts, and electricity demand and greenhouse gases and improve the air quality. These measures also help the buildings as well as the communities to bring back the resilience and bring back the natural flow of water and water. - Installing cool or green roofs and planting shade trees can lower the temperatures on the surface and air and it also reduces the total amount of energy used for cooling the buildings that result in electric system improved reliability and this influence is more during the events of extreme weather - Cool pavements as well as the green roofs can control the heat and temperatures in the islands and also limit the risks of flooding, during heavy rainstorms and reduce the storm water runoff. - Increased tree canopy can help protecting against erosion, high winds and flooding - Smart growth can help cooling the urban areas and also reduces the need for transportation powered with fossil fuel and improves the cooling centres access. However, in certain instances, mitigation strategies and climate change adaption may also conflict with the efforts of the heat island reduction. For instance, effort for the adoption could result in vegetative cover replacement with surfaces that are impermeable, like coastal infrastructure hardening for protection against the sea level risks, can increase the effect of the heat island. However, these negative effects can be minimized by incorporation of other cooling strategies into the climate action planning, in an overall, by the communities. CONCLUSION Urban regions are consistently experiencing suffocation in the atmosphere that is heated from the UHI effect. The impacts are various from the direct effect to the human health and that leads to adverse impacts in accelerating global warming, increasing greenhouse gases and climate change. 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