CRICOS Provider: 01241G SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Written by: Geoff Lamberton & Robert Cunningham Revised by: Geoff Lamberton (2014) Study Guide Seventh edition Seventh edition 2015 © 2015 Southern Cross University Southern Cross University Military Road East Lismore NSW 2480 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Copyright material indicated in this work has been copied under Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968. i Contents Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................1 Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability.............................................................................................................5 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................6 What is ethics?...............................................................................................................................................6 Different types of ethical theories................................................................................................................7 Why be ethical?.............................................................................................................................................8 Ethics and happiness.....................................................................................................................................9 Sustainability and ethics............................................................................................................................11 Sustainability and business.......................................................................................................................12 Case Study – Interface...............................................................................................................................12 Concluding comments..............................................................................................................................14 References...................................................................................................................................................14 Topic 2 Culture and ethics.....................................................................................................................................................15 Overview.....................................................................................................................................................16 Ethics and law.............................................................................................................................................16 Absolutism and relativism........................................................................................................................17 Implications of ethical relativism..............................................................................................................18 Halfway between absolutism and relativism...........................................................................................19 Ethics and religion.....................................................................................................................................19 Ethics and culture.......................................................................................................................................20 Piracy in Somalia.......................................................................................................................................21 Confucian ethics........................................................................................................................................21 Daoism & ethics.........................................................................................................................................22 Buddhist ethics...........................................................................................................................................24 Case Study – Traidcraft.............................................................................................................................25 Concluding comments..............................................................................................................................26 Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories............................................................................................................................27 Introduction................................................................................................................................................28 Consequential ethical theories..................................................................................................................29 Utilitarianism..............................................................................................................................................30 Care ethics...................................................................................................................................................32 Ethical analysis...........................................................................................................................................33 Case Study – Supersize Me........................................................................................................................34 Concluding comments..............................................................................................................................35 References...................................................................................................................................................35 ii SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories.....................................................................................................................37 Nonconsequential ethical theories............................................................................................................ 39 Kantian ethics............................................................................................................................................. 40 Virtue ethics................................................................................................................................................ 41 Case study – Ethics, economics and war................................................................................................. 46 References................................................................................................................................................... 46 Topic 5 Applied business ethics..........................................................................................................................................47 Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 48 Professional ethics...................................................................................................................................... 49 Corporate social responsibility................................................................................................................. 50 Corporate culture....................................................................................................................................... 52 International business case study – Shell Oil in Nigeria........................................................................ 53 Enron case study........................................................................................................................................ 54 Case study – The Corporation................................................................................................................... 55 Topic 6 Environmental ethics...............................................................................................................................................57 Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 59 The dominant mechanistic worldview..................................................................................................... 59 The new ecological paradigm.................................................................................................................... 59 Ecocentrism................................................................................................................................................ 60 Eco-humanism........................................................................................................................................... 62 Deep ecology.............................................................................................................................................. 63 Utilitarianism & virtue ethics.................................................................................................................... 64 Speciesism................................................................................................................................................... 64 Animal experimentation........................................................................................................................... 67 Alternatives to the animal model of experimentation........................................................................... 67 Case study – ethical agriculture................................................................................................................ 68 References................................................................................................................................................... 68 Topic 7 Sustainability and environment......................................................................................................................... 69 Overview..................................................................................................................................................... 71 Defining sustainability............................................................................................................................... 71 Weak versus strong sustainability............................................................................................................. 73 Sustainability as a multidimensional objective....................................................................................... 73 Ecological sustainability rules................................................................................................................... 75 Ecological footprints.................................................................................................................................. 76 Climate change and carbon management................................................................................................ 78 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................. 79 Case study – Rocky Mountain Institute................................................................................................... 80 References................................................................................................................................................... 81 Topic 8 Social and cultural sustainability........................................................................................................................ 83 Overview..................................................................................................................................................... 85 Social identity and sustainability.............................................................................................................. 85 Social case for sustainability..................................................................................................................... 86 Sustainability and culture.......................................................................................................................... 87 Permaculture.............................................................................................................................................. 89 Contents iii Concluding comments.............................................................................................................................. 89 References................................................................................................................................................... 90 Topic 9 Economic sustainability..........................................................................................................................................91 Overview..................................................................................................................................................... 93 Critique of capitalism................................................................................................................................ 93 Sustainable economics............................................................................................................................... 94 Ecological economics................................................................................................................................ 95 Industrial ecology....................................................................................................................................... 95 Biomimicry................................................................................................................................................. 97 Natural capitalism...................................................................................................................................... 97 Case study – Guitang Sugar in Guangxi.................................................................................................. 98 References................................................................................................................................................. 100 Concluding comments............................................................................................................................ 100 Topic 10 Sustainable organisations................................................................................................................................ 101 Overview................................................................................................................................................... 103 Profit maximisation and sustainability................................................................................................... 103 Cradle to cradle design............................................................................................................................ 103 Sustainable technology............................................................................................................................ 104 Model of a sustainable business organisation........................................................................................ 107 Case study – Coopers Brewery................................................................................................................ 108 Concluding comments............................................................................................................................ 108 Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues...........................................................................109 Overview................................................................................................................................................... 110 Cloning...................................................................................................................................................... 110 Biotechnology........................................................................................................................................... 111 Genetic engineering................................................................................................................................. 112 Nanotechnology....................................................................................................................................... 113 Social business.......................................................................................................................................... 116 Case study – The Fair Trade..................................................................................................................... 117 Concluding comments............................................................................................................................ 117 References................................................................................................................................................. 117 Topic 12 A global sustainable society.............................................................................................................................119 The ethics of climate change.................................................................................................................... 121 Sustainable cities...................................................................................................................................... 122 Population, immigration and sustainability.......................................................................................... 125 Living an ethical & sustainable life......................................................................................................... 126 Being ethical and sustainable.................................................................................................................. 127 Case study – Gross National Happiness in Bhutan.............................................................................. 129 SOC10236 Applied E iv thics and Sustainability 1 Introduction This unit is about applied ethics, sustainability and the link between these two important ideas. SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability is best described as an introduction to general and personal ethics with strong business and environmental themes linked to the objective of sustainability. Each of us needs to continually develop our own personal values, belief systems and morality; in this unit, we refer to this as our personal worldview imperative; and, given the reality and severity of environmental problems, we need to understand the causes and our role in the destruction of the natural environment. The search for the appropriate ethical foundation to enable the transition to a sustainable society reflects strongly in this unit. Continuing destruction of the natural environment threatens the ecological life support system on which all species which co-exist on this planet depend. We provide the foundational ideas necessary to challenge and change humankind’s behaviour as consumers, householders, communities, business organisations, nation states and members of a global community. Sustainability is a multilevel concept and requires action on all fronts. Ethics is the study of right and wrong. An objective of including this unit in your university studies is to help you in your own search for what is right. An ethics unit should also: 1. provide an understanding of the nature of ethical problems 2. provide conceptual tools to critically analyse ethical problems 3. help us form and evaluate ethical arguments 4. require consideration and respect of contrary views. The learning materials developed for this unit include films, case studies, activities and contemporary issue vignettes. The films, case studies and vignettes provide the opportunity for application of the concepts presented to be applied to contemporary ethical and sustainability issues. These stories form a critical part of your learning. Some of these stories were published by the author at www.echonews.com.au in a column called Ethically Speaking. Table A provides a summary of these materials by topic linked to this unit’s six primary learning objectives. The main content in each topic is shown in bold font. 2 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Table A Linking unit content and activities to learning objectives Unit Objective Topic No. Describe major ethics and sustainability tools and concepts Utilise critical reasoning skills to identify solutions to ethical problems Examine sustainability policy and practice at multiple levels Analyse contemporary global ethical and sustainability issues Evaluate the social, environmental and economic impact of business on stakeholders Explain the importance of diverse cultural influences to ethics and sustainability 1 Corporate social responsibility Activity – Ethics test Interface case study Film – Home Assign Planning activity 2 Ethical relativism Film – Confucious Traidcraft case study Eastern ethical systems Assignment Planning activity 2 3 Utilitarianism Act utilitarian analysis Assignment Planning Activity 3 Supersize Me case study Film – Supersize Me 4 Kant’s duty ethics Apply Kant’s categorical imperative Assignment Planning Activity 4 Film – Touching the void 5 Corporate ethics and social responsibility Enron case study Film – The Corporation Shell case study Corporate culture 6 Anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, speciesism Film – Earthlings Ethical farm case study 7 Natural capital Activity – Environmental footprint analysis Activity – Personal sustainability evaluation RMI case study 8 Social identity, cultural diversity & sustainability Activity – Sustainable communities Collapse scenarios Film – Ancient Futures Introduction 3 Unit Objective Topic No. Describe major ethics and sustainability tools and concepts Utilise critical reasoning skills to identify solutions to ethical problems Examine sustainability policy and practice at multiple levels Analyse contemporary global ethical and sustainability issues Evaluate the social, environmental and economic impact of business on stakeholders Explain the importance of diverse cultural influences to ethics and sustainability 9 Industrial ecology Natural capitalism Film – Biomimicry Activity – Sustainable business design Carbon footprint analysis 10 Film – Waste equals food Sustainable business model Activity – Improving sustainability performance Coopers Brewery case study 11 Social entrepreneurship Homeless World Cup case study Films – Future of food, Nanotech Bioethics Film – The Fair Trade Fair Trade case study Danone case 12 Sustainable city design Population & immigration Climate change ethics GNH case study & film 4 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Ethics can be a serious subject. Life and death, violence and war, love and hatred all feature throughout this unit. To lighten our journey through the intellectual jungle of ethical theory and practice, I have included cartoons, Zen stories, Mullah Nasrudin stories and poems in each topic. My thanks to the artists who have permitted us to use their work. The Zen stories have many layers of meaning, as do many of the poems and cartoons. I am still trying to work out the Mullah Nasrudin stories! The Mullah is a holy man who provides religious and ethical teachings in the Sufi tradition in what appears a sometimes convoluted way. I think it is an example of learning by annoying! If you wish to discuss these further the online discussion boards provide a useful vehicle for this. The language of ethics and sustainability is at times quite technical. There are many ethics textbooks (refer to the reading lists in the Study Guide) which are well written and provide sound explanations and definitions of many important ethical terms. A glossary of sustainability terminology has also been prepared for your benefit and has been included as Table B. Your Study Guide provides a systematic path for you to follow as you work through the learning materials, with many short readings from books, professional and academic journal articles and other reputable academic sources. These learning materials are designed to be as interactive as possible and with your engaged input I believe we will navigate successfully toward a more ethical and sustainable life. Table B Glossary of sustainability terminology Anthropocentric Human-centred perspective Carrying capacity Measures the capacity of an ecosystem to sustain life Critical natural capital Natural resources critical to life on earth, such as the ozone layer and forest mass Corporate social responsibility Organisational accountability to a broad set of stakeholders including society Ecocentric Nature-centred perspective Ecological footprints Measure impact of human activity on earth Environmental stewardship Obligation to nurture and preserve the natural environment Design for environment Design of products and services to minimise environmental impact Fungible Substitutability of resources Gross National Happiness Holistic measure of an enlightened society Human-made capital Physical and financial capital such as buildings, cars, shares etc. Life cycle analysis Identify the impact over the entire life from extraction of raw material inputs to disposal of finished product Industrial ecology Design of industrial systems in the image of nature Industrial metabolism Efficiency with which industrial systems use natural resources to produce outputs Intergenerational equity Obligation to preserve natural environment intact for future generations Intragenerational equity Obligation to eliminate poverty Natural Capital Resources produced by nature Nonrenewable resources Natural resources which don’t regenerate over relevant human time frames, e.g. fossil fuels such as coal and oil Renewable resources Natural resources which do regenerate over relevant human time frames Right livelihood Work which is ethical Sustainability Ability to maintain and support life over the long term Sustainable development Environmental, economic and socially sustainable progress Triple bottom line Environmental, economic and social performance 5 Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability Is sustainability the right thing to do? Ethics concerns what is right, what ought we do, or how should we live? Sustainability is an alternative path for humankind. So, is living sustainability what we ought to be doing, is sustainability the ethical path? In 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 171 nation states signed the declaration of sustainability committing their nations to the goal of sustainability. It’s very hard to argue against sustainability. How would you react if someone said they prefer unsustainability? Unsustainability is evidenced in resource depletion, environmental degradation, discharge of pollutants, anthropogenic climate change, child slavery, poverty, economic collapse, pandemics and overpopulation which are only a small sample of what seems an endless list of unsustainable human actions. Unsustainability reduces the quality of life for future generations and the disadvantaged; whilst others who belong to the privileged class enjoy a high consumption lifestyle. Unsustainability doesn’t seem very fair. But we don’t live sustainably. So if sustainability is the ethical path, why has humankind chosen the path of unsustainability? As you progress through this unit you will find some answers to these questions as well as some very clear signposts which point towards the utopian vision of a sustainable global society. Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Is sustainability the right thing to do? Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 1.1 to 1.3 2.75 Film: Home 1.5 Online activity: Ethics test 0.25 Assignment preparation activity 0.5 Business case study: Interface 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours 6 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Materials required Readings 1.1 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, The Federation Press, Sydney, pp. 6–13. 1.2 Newton, L 2003, Ethics and Sustainability: Sustainable Development and the Moral Life, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, pp. 1–8. 1.3 Tripoli, L 2008, ‘Interface’s Amazing Journey’, Sustainability, August, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 239–242. Film Home – You can watch this 90-minute film on YouTube at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqxENMKaeCU, or borrow the DVD from your local store. Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • define ethics, morality, sustainability and corporate social responsibility • distinguish ethical theory from applied ethics • explain the relevance of ethics to sustainability • provide reasons for living an ethical life • describe the meaning of our personal worldview imperative. Introduction The aim of this topic is to introduce and link the two main themes in this unit: ethics and sustainability. We begin by asking two crucial questions: • What is ethics? • Why be ethical? Whilst our focus is applied ethics, we must also discuss the role of ethical theory as these theories are in fact conceptual tools critical to the process of solving ethical problems and making ethical decisions which are discussed in more detail in Topic 3. The concept of sustainability is explored and linked to ethics through humankind’s search for an ethical and sustainable relationship with the natural environment. Sustainability is a multidimensional concept and is sometimes referred to as the 3 Es of ethics, economics and environment. We also discuss the important business concept of corporate social responsibility. The recommended film this week is Home, a stunning visual array of environmental, social and global images covering many of the essential ideas which underpin our study of ethics and sustainability. Our case study concerns the world’s largest flooring manufacturer Interface, which is also a leader in sustainability transformation. What is ethics? Ethics concerns how we ought to live our lives. Ethics, like life, is about relationships; relationships with other people, and with the other species with which we co-exist on Earth. Human relationships with other humans and with the natural environmental are therefore at the heart of both the study and practice of ethics and, as will be demonstrated throughout this unit, are critically important to the objective of building a sustainable global society. Sometimes the terms ethics and morality are used interchangeably; although, technically, ethics is the study of morality. Two critical components of ethics are theory and application. Ethical theories are conceptual tools essential to finding solutions to ethical problems. Applied ethics, which is the focus of this unit, is the Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability 7 application of ethical theories in a rational and systematic way to solve an ethical problem and/or make ethical decisions. Should I return an overpayment from an ATM to the local bank? Should I take a sick day off work to enjoy myself? Should I tell my spouse I have been unfaithful? Can there be a just war? The role of ethical theory is to provide a strong and logical foundation for resolving the entire range of ethical problems which confront us daily or sometimes once in a lifetime. Ethical problems involving relationships with other people are sometimes called social ethics, whereas our relationship with other species and the natural world is the focus of environmental ethics. Business ethics is a subset of social and environmental ethics and concerns specific business related ethical problems. Ethical theory and the recommended process of applying these theories to solve ethical problems (i.e. applied ethics) is exactly the same whether we are confronted with a social, environmental or business ethics problem. Different types of ethical theories The framework depicted in Figure 1.1 can be used to distinguish different ethical theories. Ethical theories represent different ways of viewing, analysing or resolving ethical problems. Figure 1.1 Motive–Act–Consequences model of ethical theories Some ethical theories focus on the motivation of the person committing the ethical act. In Topic 4, we discuss the ethical system developed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who believed that, for an action to be ethical, the motivation of the actor must conform to their duty of responsibility to do what is right. This contrasts with utilitarianism, which looks at the expected consequences of an action; the moral course of action is considered to be the act which maximises net utility, defined as the expected positive consequences less the expected negative consequences of the ethical act being evaluated. In between these two approaches (the central box in Figure 1.1) is the idea that we must examine the inherent nature of an act to determine if it is ethical or unethical. This type of approach is often used when relying on religion to determine morality; that is an act is considered to be moral because it follows religious rules and doctrines which are believed to be inherently good because of their spiritual source. No theory in ethics is universally considered the right theory or the best theory. However, there is a distinction between moral and immoral, and ethical theories are invaluable in making this distinction. The study of pluralist ethics involves using different ethical theories in different situations. With pluralism the critical skill to be required is selecting the appropriate ethical theory to solve a specific ethical problem. Ethics is not a discipline where we will try to teach one correct solution to ethical problems, and we cannot reveal a superior ethical theory that can be applied in all cases. As students of ethics it is important we recognise the limitations of what we believe to be knowledge. Source: http://www.dilbert.com 8 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability A theory is an attempt to reveal the true nature of reality. Theories typically attempt to explain a reality and achieve this by adopting many limiting assumptions. When these assumptions do not hold in practice, the usefulness of the theory is reduced. Ethical theories are useful as tools for guiding decision making in complex situations, and it is in this context – that is, theory as tools – that we discuss and apply ethical theories in this unit. Why be ethical? British philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) had an interesting view as to why society needs ethics. Hobbes believed the inherent nature of humans was to act out of self-interest. Given that resources are in limited supply (referred to in economics as the problem of scarcity), humans compete aggressively for food, clothing and shelter, and to achieve their desire to accumulate wealth. In Hobbes’ view, the natural state of human affairs is a chaotic battle for scarce resources. In ethics, this method of resolving decisions based on self-interest is referred to as egoism. In the competitive global economy, where economic self-interest is a driving force, egoism amongst many economic actors is clear to see; and partly explains why more than three billion people still live in poverty. Hobbes’ solution to this natural state of chaos was for humans to compromise their self-interest and enter into a moral social contract. This contract would ensure moral standards of behaviour and replace chaos with order and security, making society as a whole better off. This social contract could be enforced. • by Government, which enacts laws to govern human affairs; laws which should reflect prevailing moral attitudes • by religious organisations such as the Church, which in previous times was the dominant force in Europe • within communities, for example by Elders of the tribe or elected officials, or • within families, where parents are expected to provide moral teaching and direction. The famous Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 B.C.E) provided a strongly individualistic argument as to why it’s in our best interests to lead a moral life. He believed that leading a moral life results in a clear conscience, psychological health and spiritual tranquility; conversely, he believed that moral guilt was psychologically and physically debilitating. Socrates’ argument is based on a connection between a person’s spiritual health, emotional health and physical health. This relationship would find many supporters amongst naturopaths, Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners and religious organisations; many of which espouse the moral principle of the universal spiritual law what you sow you reap! The following reading provides an excellent introduction to the meaning and purpose of ethics. As well the author discusses ethics as an instrument of social transformation identifying the three major contemporary ethical issues confronting Australia as ecological sustainability, poverty, and Indigenous inequality; to which we could add the issue of refugee detention and treatment of asylum seekers as a fourth major ethical dilemma which Australia must solve. In Topics 11 and 12, we will focus on similar issues at a global scale. r Reading 1.1 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, The Federation Press, Sydney, pp. 6–13. Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability 9 a Quiz: How ethical are you? Go to the following site and complete the ethics test: http://news.utexas.edu/2014/09/22/how-ethical-are-you-testyour-decision-making-skills This test is just a bit of fun and you probably guessed which answers would make you look more ethical. Some online searching will uncover more advanced ethics tests which produce personality reports and provide an opportunity for you to reflect on your ethical values. If you like we can discuss the use of ethics tests online on the discussion forum setup for topic content discussion. Ethics and happiness Do you believe that high moral integrity leads to happiness? Clive Hamilton, a well-known Australian ethicist, in his book The Freedom Paradox (2008) distinguishes three different ways of living described as: 1. A pleasant life, where we maximise our own individual material, physical and emotional wellbeing through the pursuit of financial wealth, career goals, status, power, material consumption and sexual conquest. 2. A good life, where a person refines their capabilities to fulfil their own individual potential. For example, an athlete or musician may strive hard to cultivate their own unique talent to enable them to perform at an elite level. The focus of a good life is maximising individual potential in a self-focused quest for success. 3. A morally meaningful life, which is described as an ethically higher calling and altruistic path where we are committed to the welfare of others. This, according to Hamilton, is the path to freedom and happiness. Rejection of self-interest as a satisfying path recognises that no matter how much we accumulate as individuals we can never have enough as our desires are unlimited. There is support for the idea of a link between happiness and giving to others within Eastern moral teachings, which are explored further in Topic 2. For example, the principle of interconnection, which is an essential foundation to Buddhist philosophy, suggests that individuals can only flourish by contributing to the welfare of the community and environment in which they live; because of their inherent interconnection to and dependence on the health and wellbeing of the community and environment, which supports and enables their life to flourish. Such behaviour acknowledges the complete interconnection of the self with everything else. Recognising this interconnection leads to acts of compassion and loving kindness towards these others to whom we’re connected, a belief in fairness and social justice, and charity towards those in need. 10 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Dharma the cat says: Sometimes when you try to teach others, they end up teaching you! Visit Dharma, Bodhi and Siam at http://www.DharmaTheCat.com – winner of the 10 Best On The Web Award. Many happiness studies suggest those who pursue goals of wealth, fame and sexual conquest report lower levels of happiness than those who focus on strong relationships, self-development and contributing to the community. However, our modern consumer society persuades us that the pleasant life is a worthwhile pursuit; in fact, the market is a mechanism for generating our needs then providing a product to satisfy that need. In Sanskrit – the ancient Hindu language – the term for morality is dharma – which is interpreted in Hindu scripture as the law that upholds the universe and stops it from disintegrating into nothingness. Certainly, the study of ethics has an important place in Eastern philosophy. We will explore this further in Topic 2. Ethics quote Every civilization rests on a set of promises … If the promises are broken too often, the civilization dies, no matter how rich it may be, or how mechanically clever. Hope and faith depend on the promises; if hope and faith go, everything goes. Herbert Agar (US newspaper editor and Pulitzer-winning author, 1897–1980) http://www.globalethics.org/newsline/members/currentissue2.tmpl Throughout our study of ethics and sustainability, we will continually draw on contemporary issues, many global in nature to test our understanding of theory through application to real-life problems. These examples are designed to assist your study and we suggest you examine each issue using the language and concepts of ethics and sustainability. v Film The film Home provides a stunning visual array of images relevant to the path to an ethical and sustainable global society. Home is available for hire in many DVD stores or you can watch it on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqxENMKaeCU. The film introduces many problems relevant to sustainability and showcases many innovative solutions currently being implemented throughout the world using the slogan it’s too late to be a pessimist. The film runs for 1.5 hours and is highly recommended. There is an opportunity to continue our discussion of Home online using the discussion forum set up specifically for discussion of topic content. What aspects of the film impacted on you most? How does the film link ethics to sustainability? Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability 11 Sustainability and ethics The study of sustainability is driven by an overwhelming concern for the deteriorating state of our natural environment. Sustainability, together with its derivative concept sustainable development, has become the dominant global expression of concern for the natural environment and the need to pursue economic development in a way that does not destroy the natural environment. International commitment to the goal of sustainable development was evident at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where Agenda 21, a declaration of sustainability and development, was endorsed by 171 national government delegations (United Nations, 1992). At stake is the welfare of the planet, and survival of humankind and the many species which inhabit planet Earth. In this unit, we examine the ethical dimension of the goal of sustainability. To some environmental scientists, sustainability is the search for a technical solution to managing natural resources for humankind’s exclusive use. Some economists view sustainable development as more economic growth with some attempt to lessen environmental impacts. However, there is growing acceptance that sustainability contains environmental, social and economic dimensions and it is this definition that we examine and link to our search for an ethical and sustainable way of living. Sustainability is typically defined to encompass environmental, social, cultural and economic objectives. It is very much a contested concept, although there is an evolving understanding that sustainability requires environmental preservation, social wellbeing for all people, preservation of cultural diversity and longterm economic viability. It’s when we need to be more specific that this definition becomes difficult to operationalise and use to formulate policy. In many cases, the competing elements contained within the objective of sustainability must be prioritised, which in itself requires ethical judgement. Should government policy prioritise preservation of old-growth forests or encourage growth in the timber industry? Should coastal wetlands be dredged and reclaimed to enable a beach resort to encourage tourism and provide jobs? Whether you prioritise human economic goals or preservation of the natural environment requires personal ethical judgement. The social component of sustainability necessarily includes social wellbeing for everyone, which requires meeting the basic needs of all seven billion people on earth for food, water, clothing, shelter, health care, education and security. The goal of eliminating poverty is central to sustainability and within the context of the sustainability objective is referred to as intragenerational equity. The moral obligation to future generations to preserve a healthy and diverse natural environment is referred to as intergenerational equity. Including both of these dimensions of equity in our definition of sustainability, places morality at the centre of the search for sustainability. Reading 1.2 is an extract from Lisa Newton’s book Ethics and Sustainability, where she refers to our personal worldview imperative where we strive to find a coherent, good and sustainable personal morality to follow in our daily lives. Given humankind’s role in causing widespread social inequity and environmental destruction, we need to develop our own individual personal worldview imperative, which will contribute to social welfare for all, facilitate ecological preservation and restoration, and provide essential goods and services for economic wellbeing. r Reading 1.2 Newton, L 2003, Ethics and Sustainability: Sustainable Development and the Moral Life, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, pp. 1–8. 12 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Sustainability and business If you are asked the question, what is the purpose of business?, you may respond to make as much profit as possible for shareholders. But the primary reason business organisations were established was to supply goods and services for society. In this context, profit is a means to this end, rather than the primary objective of business. In 1776, Adam Smith’s famous book The Wealth of Nations was published. Smith identified the invisible hand of the market, the idea that many economic actors pursuing individual self-interest are led by the invisible force of efficiency to an economically optimal outcome for society. However, in an earlier book titled The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), Smith explored the link between moral judgment and self-interest, recognising individuals pursuing their own self-interest must also advance the collective interests of society. Adam Smith recognised that capitalism motivated only by profit is divorced from its moral roots and becomes a destructive force, consuming the very resources (people and nature) it depends on. Smith understood that capitalism needed morality to operate effectively. More recently, concern for negative corporate social and environmental impacts has led to the concept of corporate social responsibility. Development of corporate social responsibility and the evolution of related concepts such as corporate environmental performance, stakeholder theory and triple bottom line, together with their widespread use, reflects increasing interest in social responsibility and sustainability within business. Typically, stakeholder theory is used to describe corporate social responsibility as meeting the needs of a broad group of stakeholders affected by the company’s operations, rather than the more narrow focus of only meeting the need of shareholders for higher returns. McWilliams and Seigal (2001, p. 117) define CSR as ‘actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law’. Moir (2001, p. 19) states that CSR involves the following key principles: • to treat employees fairly and equitably • to operate ethically and with integrity • to respect basic human rights • to sustain the environment for future generations • to be a caring neighbour in their communities. As individuals, consumers and members of households, communities, business organisations, regions, nation states and the global community, we make decisions that are unsustainable. Sustainability is a multilevel concept and if we are to get even close to achieving this goal, action is required at these multiple levels, which necessarily includes business organisations given the resources they control and consume and the enormous amount of pollution caused by industrial production. As we focus on the ethics of business and business sustainability, keep in mind that it is not corporations that act unethically. Corporations can’t make decisions. It is the organisation’s employees, managers and directors who are collectively responsible for making ethical and unethical decisions. Is it unethical to apply different moral standards in the workplace than in our personal lives? No doubt corporate objectives will differ from personal objectives, but this does not justify lowering our personal ethical standards for the good of the corporation. One of the themes developed in this unit is the belief that when we go to work we should not leave our personal values at home. Case Study – Interface Interface is a large multinational floor covering manufacturer who has embarked on a long term project of transformation to sustainability. It is worth viewing the company’s website at http://www.interfaceglobal. com/Sustainability.aspx to gauge their commitment to sustainability and Reading 1.3 provides a brief overview of this project. Topic 1 Introduction to ethics and sustainability 13 r Reading 1.3 Tripoli, L 2008, ‘Interface’s Amazing Journey’, Sustainability, August, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 239–242. a Activity – Online discussion question Interface provides an example of sustainability applied in a business context. From this case study what are the most striking examples of Interface reducing the unsustainability of their operations? Provide examples of this company’s business which are still unsustainable. a Assessment planning activity 1 Topics 1 to 4 each contain an Assessment Planning Activity which describes a structured approach to ethical analysis. These four activities are designed to assist your preparation for Assignments 1 and 2. An essential part of this preparation is your active engagement in the online discussions concerning these activities and assessments. The first critical step in Assignments 1 and 2 is to select and carefully define an ethical issue. This is absolutely critical and sets up the rest of your analysis. Here are some examples of what to do and what not to do! Peruse the news media for some topical issues. In previous years the carbon tax was a big issue. So we could start with this question: Is the carbon tax ethical? This question could be deconstructed into many sub-questions: Is it ethical to tax carbon emissions? Is it ethical for the Federal Government to redistribute income using revenue from the carbon tax? Should the carbon tax be delayed until the next Federal election? Is it legal to target only a small number of companies with the carbon tax? Now note this last question is not worded as an ethical question, but rather a legal question. Law is different to ethics and therefore this question is not appropriate for an ethical analysis. It would also be very difficult in a short undergraduate assignment to analyse the general ethical question Is it ethical to tax carbon emissions? Your analysis will be much more achievable if you select a more specific and focused ethical issue to analyse. Use the online discussion boards to define possible ethical issues for analysis. Try to clearly define an interesting and focused ethical question. It’s not as easy as it sounds! Here are some guidelines to help you: 1. Keep your ethical question short, focused and clear. 2. Use a should or ought word in your ethical question – e.g. should I eat that last donut? 3. Make sure your ethical question is not a legal question or a question of fact. 4. Separate your ethical analysis from the ethical question. e.g. we might ethically analyse drone warfare and discover drone warfare is cheaper than an invade and occupy military strategy. However we would not frame the ethical question as: ■ Should the US use drones because it’s cheaper? ■ Rather we would include the cost factor in the analysis but leave it out of the question. 14 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability 5. Don’t define ethical questions with obvious yes/no answers for your assignments. Should I study hard or become a mass murderer? Should children be good to their mums? The ethical question must require some level of analysis so that you can display your skills to the markers! 6. Define your question to focus on one ethical issue, rather than a combination of many issues. 7. Don’t begin your analysis with a predetermined position i.e. don’t form your ethical conclusion before you’ve done the analysis and don’t include this predetermined position in your question; e.g. is it ethical for you to engage in dangerous, risky and pointless activities such as canyoning and then ask me to rescue you when you get in trouble? Concluding comments You should now have an understanding of what ethics is, why it is important and how it is a critical component of the multidimensional objective of sustainability. The distinction between ethical theory and its application (applied ethics) to solving ethical problems is an important part of ethics and central to your assessment in this unit. We have defined sustainability as a multilevel and multidimensional concept containing ethical elements critical to the management of business in the contemporary global economy. In Topic 2, we examine the relevance of culture and the context in which ethical actions take place to the study of what we ought to do. References Hamilton, C 2008, The Freedom Paradox, Towards a Post-Secular Ethics, Allen & Unwin, Melbourne. Mcwilliams, A & Siegel, D 2001, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility: A Theory of the Firm Perspective’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 117–127. Moir, L 2001, ‘What do we mean by Corporate Social Responsibility?’, Corporate Governance, no. 2, pp. 16–22. United Nations 1992, Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, United Nations, New York. 15 Topic 2 Culture and ethics Piracy in Somalia If you lived in a war ravaged and extremely poor country such as Somalia what lengths would you go to feed your family? If the best opportunity appeared to be piracy, and your intention was to not physically harm your captives, but rather threaten to do so to enable you to extort funds from their relatively rich families, would this be ethical? To help you answer this question we have included a link to a short computer game developed by WIRED which demonstrates the economic case for piracy in Somalia. If you want to maximise your return you really do need to escalate the threat of violence against your captives. Also included in this week’s learning materials is a short article on some of the contextual social and political issues relevant to piracy in Somalia. The broader issue here is whether morality depends on context, and in particular the cultural context of each specific ethical case? Can we say that piracy and kidnap are always unethical? Is there any context in which it would be ethical? These are the questions central to ethical relativism, the ethical theory which is the focus of Topic 2. Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Piracy in Somalia Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 2.1 to 2.7 4 Film: Confucius 0.25 Online activity: Somali pirate game 0.25 Assignment preparation activity 0.5 Business case study: Traidcraft 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours 16 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Materials required Readings 2.1 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 2, pp. 29–32. 2.2 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 2, pp. 23–25. 2.3 Pham, JP 2010, ‘Putting Somali piracy in context’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, vol. 28, pp. 325–341. 2.4 Gibson, K 2014, An Introduction to Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 148–152. 2.5 Gibson, K 2014, An Introduction to Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 156–159. 2.6 Traidcraft, 2014, Meet Our Producers: Marcelina from Peru, viewed 14 March 2014 at http://www. traidcraft.co.uk/resourcesearch. Film A short extract from Confucius (Kong Fu-zi). Watch the section on YouTube from 13.45 (13 minutes 45 seconds) to 19.40 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=el3i3TfNg-I Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • describe the links between cultural relativism, cultural diversity and ethics • distinguish ethical relativism from ethical absolutism • distinguish what is ethical from what is legal • discuss the major principles of Confucian, Buddhist and Daoist ethics. Overview This topic discusses cultural and religious determinants of ethics, distinguishing between ethical relativism and absolutism. Cultural and ethical relativism are central to the discussion of the moral relevance of different cultural beliefs and practices observed throughout the world. We also introduces Eastern ethical systems, as other cultural understandings of what is ethical can inform our search for an ethical path. The film this week is a short extract from the 2010 Chinese film Confucius, where Confucius uses a clever, rational and entertaining moral argument to save the life of a young slave. This week’s case study focuses on a fair-trade business Traidcraft, which was founded on religious principles with the goal of alleviating poverty. Ethics and law Secular ethics refers to a non-spiritual, non-religious source of moral guidelines. Secular ethics are derived from a rational, logical and intellectual process of reasoning. In Topic 3, we discuss a very systematic and rational ethical decision process which involves a process quite similar to cost-benefit analysis, a method of economic decision making widely used in business. In Topic 4, the ethical system of the famous German philosopher Immanuel Kant provides a logical process of critical analysis based on the principle of universalisation; that is, can the ethical rule being considered in a specific case be applied universally in all similar cases? Although the focus in this unit is on these methods of secular ethics, it is appropriate to acknowledge the strong influence religion has on ethics. For some people, religion is their source of ethical guidance. Similarly, we will see later in this topic that culture, which includes prevailing societal rituals, beliefs and practices, also has a strong influence over ethics; and in fact our understanding of rationality may only be a product of the culture in which we were raised. Topic 2 Culture and ethics 17 Figure 2.1 suggests ethics has its roots in logic, culture and religion and is a determinant of law. Laws are established by government, but not all laws are ethical. For example, slavery was once legal in many countries but it is now considered to have never been ethical. In Australia, refugees are detained, sometimes for extensive periods, an action which is condemned as immoral by international human rights organisations. Culture Ethics Law Logic Religion Figure 2.1 Determinants of ethics Absolutism and relativism Some people (we could label them absolutists) believe in the existence of moral absolutes which, when expressed as principles and rules, should never be broken. These rules could be derived logically, or from religion or cultural beliefs. In Topic 4, we discuss ethical theories which provide the basis for forming absolute rules to govern human behaviour. These theories are referred to as nonconsequentialist, as the consequences of an ethical act are not used to determine its morality. Kantian ethics, discussed later in this unit, provide examples of absolutist or near absolutist reasoning. An opposing perspective is held by moral relativists who believe there are no absolute truths and that morality is always relative to a specific culture or society. Ethical relativism holds there are no universal ethical standards that apply to all people all of the time, and each society (or culture) has its own moral guidelines for determining right and wrong. Ethical relativism is the theory that morality is relative to culture; whereas, cultural relativism is the observation that different cultures do show clear differences in their beliefs as to what is right or wrong. It is clear that cultures do differ in their perspective of morality. Within some indigenous communities (Native American, Australian, South African Kung Bushmen), there is a rule that everyone’s possessions belong to the community. If an individual needs something, they can take it; and within this culture, such acts are sharing rather than stealing based on the principle of what’s mine is yours. An example of cultural relativism is the observation of polygamy in some Muslim and Mormon communities. An example of ethical relativism would be the acceptance of polygamy owing to the different values within these communities and a belief that what is right is determined relative to their cultural values. Cultural absolutism would condemn (or condone) polygamy regardless of the prevailing cultural values; that is, its morality is determined independent of culture in the belief morality is universal. Your next reading discusses both cultural relativism and cultural absolutism. r Reading 2.1 Preston, 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 2, pp. 29–32. 18 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Implications of ethical relativism Is the existence of diverse cultural morality evidence that moral guidelines are not universal and should differ by culture? Acceptance of the theory of ethical relativism means there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes between members of different societies, as there are no universal moral standards. Most ethicists reject ethical relativism and believe that, although moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not. Contemporary ethical Issue – Suicide cult You may have heard the story of the Suruwaha who live deep in the Brazilian rainforest. Suruwahan life expectancy is about 35 years, even though they appear to be a very healthy and happy community. But around this age many of the tribe kill themselves with a deadly poison made from tree bark. Their reason is their belief in an afterlife where they will meet their relatives who have passed away and they ‘live’ together as youthful people forever. The Suruwaha live in a protected zone within Brazil where outsiders are banned and the area is governed by Indigenous rather than Brazilian law. An important ethical question is whether the Suruwaha should be left alone and allowed to determine their own lifestyle, laws and future or whether society should intervene. Intervention would work both ways; that is should the Suruwaha be allowed to leave the protected zone and enter modern civilisation? At present, this is actively discouraged. Ethical relativism is the idea that morality is culturally specific. According to this idea, what is right or wrong can only be determined by understanding local customs, beliefs and values. In its pure form, ethical relativism suggests there can be no universal moral principles that apply everywhere, as it is only within a specific cultural context that rightness or wrongness can be determined. Most of us believe there are ethical rules which should always apply; such as the sanctity of human life, the immorality of torture and rape, and protection of human rights. Note we are talking here about what should happen, not what does happen. For these reasons, ethical relativism is not a widely supported ethical idea. So should the Suruwaha be educated in the ways of modern society and compelled to comply with accepted Brazilian and international law? The Suruwaha are believed to have continued their practice of infanticide - killing babies who are born disabled. Fairly recently, a young Suruwahan mother was forced to leave her baby in the jungle to die. Later she went back to rescue him and they both left the Suruwahan tribe and now live in the outside world. While we acknowledge there are some practical survival aspects to population control, it is easy, from an ethical perspective, to condemn infanticide. If the Suruwaha cannot reasonably care for disabled children, then the outside world could and should do so; as well as caring for the parents too if they choose to leave the tribe as the young Suruwaha mother did. Should the Suruwaha be told their suicidal practices are most likely based on a tribal myth aimed at controlling population and that there is no evidence they will meet their dead relatives or live happily after death? If they accept this version of reality, how would they feel if they visited the outside world and discovered many followers of mainstream religions also believe in the afterlife? Ethical relativism forces us to acknowledge and attempt to understand cultural differences: an essential step to respecting and preserving culture within a global society. However, a practice may be traditional, but this doesn’t necessarily mean it is sacred and ethical. Everything changes. Although the Suruwaha deserve the right of self determination and the Brazilian Government is correct to preserve their natural environment, the Suruwaha have a right to engage with the outside world and enable their own world view to evolve and change. This process must be slow and gentle and supportive and conducive to the Suruwaha having choices; although one of these choices is not infanticide. They may choose suicide, but they are entitled to receive other views of the nature of reality which discourage the waste of a precious human life. www.echonews.com.au For example, in some societies, killing one’s parents after they reached a certain age was accepted practice. As in the example of the Suruwaha, there was a belief within these societies that people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still physically active and vigorous. Such a practice would clearly be condemned within modern society, although we would agree with the underlying moral principle of the duty to care which children should display towards their parents. Universal moral standards can exist whilst we acknowledge cultural differences in interpreting these standards. Even if we reject ethical relativism, it is a useful theory as it reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture. Ethical relativism also encourages tolerance toward other cultures and forces us to examine the assumptions which underlie our own values and beliefs. Topic 2 Culture and ethics 19 Halfway between absolutism and relativism Once we create an absolute moral rule, we often discover how imperfect our foresight is. This is because it is very difficult to develop rules which apply everywhere, all of the time and forever. Everything changes and every action occurs within a context of complex interrelationships. Developing moral rules which are flexible enough to adapt to this ever changing complex, interconnectedness, while still providing clear moral direction, is near impossible. At its conceptual extremes, the absolutist versus relativist debate requires the trade-off between the stability, order and security provided by absolutism compared to the freedom and creativity provided by relativism. In between these extremes are ‘near absolutes’, which are ethical principles that must be followed in all but exceptional circumstances. How do you feel about capital punishment? Do you think the death penalty is ever justified? An example of an absolutist position would be the view the State should never sanction the taking of a human life. There are obvious exceptions if that State decides to participate in a war against another nation, or against its own people. Is capital punishment justified as a deterrent in extreme cases such as serial killing? Are the victim’s families entitled to some form of redress or is the sole purpose of punishment to rehabilitate criminal offenders? A near-absolute position might be the acceptance of the death penalty in extreme cases of sadistic and premeditated murder where there is no question of innocence or hope of rehabilitation. Whether these circumstances would ever exist in reality is uncertain. Near absolutes are basic moral principles which we try to observe as absolutes with some extreme exceptions which must be justified case by case. Ethics and religion Secular ethics contrasts with a religious view of ethics where ethical principles are considered to be the commands of God. Divine command theory is an example of an ethical theory based on religious beliefs. According to Christian beliefs, Moses discovered moral truth on Mount Sinai where the 10 Commandments were carved in stone in the presence of God. Figure 2.2 Moses, © 1999 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc. http://www.newyorker.com According to divine command theory, good is whatever God commands and it therefore God’s will defines ethical behaviour. An obvious question is how are ethical issues resolved where different religions provide different moral guidelines? Furthermore, there is often conflict within different interpretations of religious scripture. For example, all Christian groups do not interpret the Bible in the same way. The Qur’an and 20 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Bahgavad Gita are interpreted differently within Muslim and Hindu sects. Religion is largely based on faith rather than scientific evidence, so it is difficult to determine morality where God’s word is interpreted in extreme and conflicting ways. Figure 2.3 Dilbert, http://www.dilbert.com There are many contemporary examples of religiously inspired compassionate and altruistic behaviour. Consider for example the many selfless and charitable acts of Mother Teresa and Mahatma Gandhi. As well, many acts we now consider to be evil have been committed in the name of religion; for example, the Medieval Crusades and Inquisition, conflicts in Northern Ireland and the former Yugoslavia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks in the USA share religious fanaticism as a root cause. In your next reading Preston explains why it is not necessary to base ethics on religious belief systems. r Reading 2.2 Preston, 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 2, pp. 23–25. Ethics and culture Culture is observed in customs and social conventions which are learned from observation, practice and experience within the cult. Much of our culturally influenced behaviour is programmed into us as children, and as adults we function unaware of these cultural ties that bind and condition us. For example, the need to be wealthy, to acquire social status, behaviour which leads to road carnage, our fascination with alcohol, our destructive relationship with the natural environment, are examples of habits we have learned and sometimes fail to question. In the next section, we examine the ethics of Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. Most ethics courses taught in Western universities are based on theories derived from European moral philosophy, including the work of Aristotle, Plato, Bentham and Kant. However, within Western civilisation we have not found solutions to the great ethical problems with which we’re confronted. Quite to the contrary, we are still struggling with basic answers to issues such as war and terrorism, climate change and environmental decline, and large-scale corporate fraud and corruption cases. It is therefore considered appropriate to look outside this box and observe Eastern ethical systems, which provide contrast to Western ethical systems and may provide valuable insights into resolving ethical problems. Topic 2 Culture and ethics 21 Piracy in Somalia Cutthroat capitalism Go to http://www.wired.com/special_multimedia/2009/cutthroatCapitalismTheGame and spend 10 minutes exploring an economic analysis of the Somali pirate business model, then read Reading 2.3. A series of questions follow which can be discussed on the online forums. r Reading 2.3 Pham, JP 2010, ‘Putting Somali piracy in context’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, vol. 28, pp. 325–341. a Activity – Online discussion questions 1. When playing the piracy game what actions increased your return on investment? 2. Do you consider these actions ethically defensible? 3. What is the relevance (if any) of extreme poverty and the cultural context within Somalia to the ethics of piracy? 4. Does the theory of ethical relativism provide any deeper understanding of this ethical issue? Confucian ethics The work of the famous Chinese philosopher Kong Fu-zi (Confucius) has had a profound effect on modern China. Confucius (551–479 BC) devoted his life to the pursuit of knowledge and moral virtue. His teachings prescribed the ‘art of living’ and the path to being a superior person; ‘the superior man thinks of virtue the ordinary man thinks of comfort’. Confucius’ path to morality required strict rules of propriety. Similar to the concept of Buddha nature (inherent goodness), Confucius perceived humankind as complete: ‘By nature men are nearly alike; by practice they get to be wide apart’. However, given temptation and the chaos Confucius observed, he believed strict external guidance was required to achieve a virtuous, good and just society. Confucius did not teach blind adherence to authority. The spirit of free investigation was critical to his goal of the ‘Great Learning’, and he insisted his students question everything they learned, displaying complete integrity of the mind, where they stand for what they know to be true and acknowledge what they don’t know. Figure 2.4 Dharma the cat says: Comparisons are odious. 22 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability A cardinal virtue underpinning Confucian ethics is filial piety (xiao shun), which means profound respect for one’s parents. This includes taking care of our parents, bringing honour to the family, never offending or speaking badly of them, not travelling far away without purpose, protecting our parents, and burying them properly after death. The filial piety principle was extended to cover relationships with friends who are to be treated as brothers, and our friend’s parents who are to be respected as if they were our own parents. The significance of filial piety can be seen in the following interpretation of Confucian teachings said to include the ten virtues of: 1. kindness of the father 2. filial duty of the son 3. gentleness of the older brother 4. obedience of the younger brother 5. justice of the husband 6. submission of the wife 7. kindness of elders 8. deference of juniors 9. benevolence of the ruler 10. loyalty of the minister. By today’s values rule, six would appear sexist, but we need to remember that Confucius lived 2500 years ago in a strongly patriarchal society. Confucius taught the doctrine of the mean, a similar approach to Aristotle’s virtue ethics where moderation in all actions is considered crucial to an ethical life. The golden rule of reciprocity ‘do unto others what you would have them do to you’ was also a central theme in the moral teachings of Confucius. The following short extract from the Chinese film Confucius introduces the principle of filial piety, and also shows Confucius using the Golden Rule to argue his case with logic to ensure he saves the life of a young slave. Also note that Confucius discusses the need for traditional cultural practices to change over time and to conform to ethical principles. w Film A short extract from Confucius (Kong Fu-zi). Watch the section on YouTube from 13.45 (13 minutes 45 seconds) to 19.40 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=el3i3TfNg-I r Reading 2.4 Gibson, K 2014, In Introduction to Ethics, Pearson: Upper Saddle River, pp. 148–152. Daoism & ethics Daoism (Taoism) and Confucianism have together shaped the modern Chinese worldview. Both philosophies have explicit and embedded moral systems which provide ethical principles and rules to guide human action. Daoism portrays humankind as being nature rather than being separate to it, rejecting the man versus nature struggle evident in the Western model of economic development. The dao is the path (the way) conforming with the natural forces of heaven and earth; and Daoist ethics rather than focusing on individually correct actions aims for harmony with all things. A central Daoist theme is wuwei, which translates as non-coercive action, requiring humankind to yield to rather than resist the forces of nature, as force always creates its own resistance. Rather than being worn down by this resistance, the way of the dao requires creative non-activity. Daoism opposes authority, Topic 2 Culture and ethics 23 oppressive government and coercion, rejecting the structured rule-based ethics of Confucian teachings, instead opting for a more spontaneous and responsive ethic. Daoism rejects the dominance of humankind and superior judgement of the patriarch central to Confucianism. The founder of Daoism, Lao-zi, recognising the male-dominated society in which he lived, emphasised the female aspect of the dao; being receptive, nourishing and sensitive; and to give life rather than possess it. As one of the earliest gender-neutral religions, Daoism teaches the theory of yin yang, where male and female energy is complementary, inseparable and equal. A classic Daoist text, the Taiping jing, establishes humankind’s ethical responsibility for facilitating harmony (the balance of yin and yang) and reciprocal communication between Heaven and Earth. When this harmony is disrupted, war, disease and disaster are caused by the doctrine of inherited guilt. As in Buddhist traditions, the Taoist search for harmony begins at the level of the individual, who finds peace within through meditative practice and religious rituals. The behaviour of the individual sets an example for others to forge a collective ethic towards society and nature, recognising the fundamental Taoist view of the oneness of self with the universe, where an impact on the natural environment is an impact on the wider self. t Attunement to the silent centre We join the spokes together in a wheel, But it is the centre hole That makes the wagon move. We shape clay into a pot, But it is the emptiness inside That holds whatever we want. We hammer wood for a house, But it is the inner space That makes it liveable. We work with being, But not-being is what we use – Tao Te Ching. Source: Broomfield 1997, p. 78 Another classic Taoist text, the Zhuangzi, identifies key assumptions of Taoism, which include the: • subjective nature and limitations of knowledge • possibility of harmony in difference • value of diversity • responsibility of humankind to nurture all things. These assumptions are evident in the evolving concept of sustainability which recognises biological and cultural diversity, humankind’s stewardship role in nature and the need to look beyond science and technology to ethical solutions to environmental problems. Tung-Kuo Tzu asked Chuang Tzu (400BC) ‘What is The Way? Where is it?’ ‘It is everywhere,’ replied Chuang Tzu. Tunk-Kuo said, ‘It will not do unless you are more specific.’ ‘It is in the ant,’ said Chuang Tzu. The Daoist principle of reversion holds movement to one extreme causes reversal to the other. Lao-zi recommended a path of simplicity, reducing desire and selfishness; ‘emptying oneself (of possessions) can be fulfilling, whereas having abundance is troubling’. Everything that grows eventually declines. With consistency of effort the weak will eventually overcome the strong. In common with Buddhism, the principle of reversion suggests an ethical middle path where extreme actions are avoided (excess consumption, brutal honesty, poverty and extreme wealth). Daoism (and Buddhism) perceive desire as the root cause of suffering and the ethical path involves the cessation of attachment to desire. A deep recognition of the equality of all things encourages the Daoist to live true to their nature rather than pursue fame and material wealth. Daoist philosophy is evident in the Chinese medical practice of acupuncture, which restores harmony by dissolving resistance along energy channels within the body. According to Daoist principles a harmonious 24 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability path requires that we practise simplicity, equity, virtue and non violence; and those that walk this path will eventually prevail. r Reading 2.5 Gibson, K 2014, Introduction to Ethics, Pearson: Upper Saddle River, pp. 156–159. Buddhist ethics About 2500 years ago Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), offered moral guidelines developed from his own observation and direct experience of the nature of suffering. Gautama showed his followers a path to the alleviation of suffering (enlightenment), which required studying the dharma (Buddhist teachings), meditation and living a moral life. According to Buddhism, every person has Buddha nature or inherent goodness. This inherent goodness lies hidden as a result of our continual grasping and attachment to material wealth, beauty, fame, etc. which obscures the realisation of our true (Buddha) nature. The Buddhist path to leading a moral life requires the removal of this obscuration and recognition of the link between insatiable desire and suffering. Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese Buddhist lay teacher, describes five Buddhist moral precepts which provide ethical guidance for all members of society: 1. Cultivate compassion and protect the lives of people, animals, plants and minerals. 2. Practice generosity, do not steal or possess anything that should belong to others, and prevent others from profiting from human suffering or the suffering of other species. 3. Do not engage in sexual relations without love and a long-term commitment, protect children from sexual abuse and prevent families from being broken by sexual misconduct. 4. Cultivate loving speech and deep listening and speak truthfully recognising words can create happiness or suffering. 5. Promote good health by consuming a healthy diet free of intoxicants and not engaging in unhealthy behaviour. t Zen story The Moon Cannot be Stolen Ryokan, a Zen master, lived the simplest kind of life in a little hut at the foot of a mountain. One evening a thief visited the hut only to discover there was nothing in it to steal. Ryokan returned and caught him. ‘You may have come a long way to visit me’, he told the prowler, ‘and you should not return empty-handed. Please take my clothes as a gift.’ The thief was bewildered. He took the clothes and slunk away. Ryokan sat naked, watching the moon. ‘Poor fellow,’ he mused, ‘I wish I could give him this beautiful moon.’ (Reps 2000, p. 23) Topic 2 Culture and ethics 25 Figure 2.5 Dharma the cat says: Humans tend to miss the point. Visit Dharma, Bodhi and Siam at http://www. DharmaTheCat.com, winner of the 10 Best On The Web Award. Case Study – Traidcraft Peruse the Traidcraft website and specifically http://www.traidcraft.co.uk/what-we-do And read the following two Traidcraft publications: r Reading 2.6 Traidcraft 2011, Meet Our Producers, Marcelina from Peru, viewed 14 March 2014 at http://www. traidcraft.co.uk/resourcesearch. a Online discussion question What is the relevance of religion to the Traidcraft ethical business model? Topics 1 to 4 each contain an Assessment Planning Activity which describe a structured approach to ethical analysis. These four activities are designed to assist your preparation for Assignments 1 and 2. An essential part of this preparation is your active engagement in the online discussions concerning these activities and assessments. 26 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability a Assignment planning activity 2 In the Assignment Planning activity in Topic 1, you were required to define precisely an ethical issue. The next step in this process is to identify facts which are relevant to this specific ethical issue. When collecting facts consider the reliability and credibility of the source you are using. You should be able to provide an academically credible reference for each of the major facts of your ethical case. Random websites, low quality media publications and blogs are not considered credible. Academic journals, books, official government and corporate websites, and established media organisations may provide credible sources of facts. Is there a cultural bias to the presentation of the facts you identify? Can you identify two opposing views of this ethical issue? Concluding comments Whether we tend towards being an ethical absolutist or relativist we need to understand the link between culture, religion and morality. Western moral philosophy provides a strong theoretical foundation for resolving ethical problems. However, our Western view of the world will only benefit from understanding other ways of knowing, such as Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. 27 Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories The consequences of advertising junk food Two film advertisements voted best in the world at the 2008 Grand Prix at Cannes were Cadbury’s Gorilla and Schweppes’ Burst. You can watch them on YouTube at: Cadbury’s Gorilla ad at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAK5d9VO1VU Schweppes Burst at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lV_drmDNE0c Gorilla is captivating and funny and promotes the idea that eating Cadbury’s Dairy Milk chocolate is a joy worth waiting for. I think these ads are works of art and can be appreciated at this level. However both ads aim to increase sales of junk food – milk chocolate and soft drink. An ad like Gorilla would cost in excess of $3 million to produce. Research shows award winning ads are successful 86% of the time in increasing sales and providing a positive return. Advertising works. Some producers lay claim to chocolate being a healthy food due to the antioxidant effect of cocoa. Milk chocolate is mostly sugar and fat, is low in cocoa and nutritionists suggest should be eaten in moderation. The harsh consequence of this adverting is it succeeds in increasing the consumption of junk food in a society already suffering from health problems such as diabetes, obesity, heart and dental problems all contributed to by excessive consumption of sugar and fats. If junk food is consumed in excess maybe the responsibility lies with the consumer and not with the manufacturer or adverting agency? Advertising ethics normally involve issues surrounding truth and honesty. There are rigorous advertising codes of ethics and both these ads comply. So what’s the problem? What if the costs (negative health impacts) outweigh the benefits (entertainment value, increased profits, eating more delicious chocolate)? Do we even care if the net social impact of brilliantly creative junk food ads are negative? What is the ethics of allocating resources to increase the consumption of junk food? This is not about limiting consumption. If people want to consume more junk food that’s their choice; but should we encourage them to do so with sophisticated marketing strategies? Part of being ethical is more than being fair and honest. It’s taking responsibility for all consequences, including the collateral damage. Ethics is about what is right but what is right depends on what we are trying to achieve. If the desired goal is a socially responsible society, do these ads contribute to this? (www.echonews.com.au) 28 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: The consequences of advertising junk food Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 3.1 to 3.3 2.25 Film: Super Size Me 0.25 Online activity 0 Assignment preparation time 2 Business case study: Super Size Me 0.5 Online discussion questions 1 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 3.1 Thiroux, P & Krasemann, K 2012, Ethics Theory and Practice, 11th edn, pp. 37–41. 3.2 Hari, J 2004, Peter Singer: Some people are more equal than others, The Independent, viewed February 4 2012 at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/peter-singer-some-peopleare- more-equal-than-others-6166342.html. 3.3 Pojman, L 2005, How Should We Live?, Thomson, Belmont, pp. 184–186. Film Supersize Me in 7 mins: How too much of McDonald’s will make you feel! at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9__23-zjhM Objectives On completion of this topic, you should be able to: • differentiate consequential from nonconsequential ethical theories • define and distinguish act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism • discuss the ethics of care • describe the systematic step-by-step method of ethical decision making. Introduction In Topics 3 and 4, we introduce the major ethical theories used to solve ethical problems. Each ethical theory is a different (conceptual) tool that provides a unique lens through which you are able to view the ethical problem. The three major schools of ethics are (Bentham’s) utilitarianism, (Kant’s) duty ethics, and (Aristotle’s) virtue ethics. Over the next two weeks, we will discuss and distinguish the most useful ethical theories from each of these schools. The four theories covered are: 1. Utilitarianism 2. Ethics of care 3. Kant’s duty ethics 4. Virtue ethics. Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories 29 The first two theories listed above are referred to as consequentialist ethical theories, and are discussed in this topic, while the nonconsequentialist ethical theories (Kant’s duty ethics and virtue ethics) are the focus of Topic 4. This topic also provides a systematic process for making ethical decisions that we recommend you use when performing ethical analysis in your assessments. The film and case study this week is Supersize Me, the true story of Morgan Spurlock, who ate too often at McDonald’s! Consequential ethical theories Consequential and nonconsequential ethical theories represent two contrasting ethical systems and are distinguished by the belief that an act is good or bad based on the consequences of the act (consequential ethics), or the reasoning that motivates the act (nonconsequential ethics). When making ethical decisions, consequentialists consider the comparative consequences of alternative actions. The right action is the one that leads to the best consequences, often expressed as the greatest good for the greatest number. The motive–act–consequence model depicted in Figure 3.1 distinguishes ethical theories based on expected consequences on the far right with ethical theories based on motive and reasoning on the far left. Figure 3.1 Motive–Act–Consequence model Consider a situation where a doctor with limited medical resources is attempting to save the lives of two people. One dying person is a brilliant scientist already credited with saving many human lives. The second dying person is a known criminal. How does the doctor decide which person to save first? Should the doctor consider each patient’s probability of survival and their respective life expectancies? Should the doctor consider the potential contribution to society of each patient, in other words the likely consequences of saving each person? A consequential approach would prioritise the survival of the scientist even if it increases the risk of the other patient dying. Nonconsequentialists focus on the intrinsic nature of the act itself; saving lives is intrinsically good. A nonconsequential ethical decision might lead the doctor to taking whatever action is required to maximise the chances of saving both lives even if this increases the chance of the scientist dying, as the consequences of this are ignored. Utilitarianism differs from ethical egoism by expanding the examination of the expected impact of our actions from the narrow egoistic view of what is best for myself to the more socially responsible perspective of what is best for everyone who is affected by my actions? Figure 3.2 Dharma the cat says: Call it what you like – I’m a results man!, Visit Dharma, Bodhi and Siam at http:// www.DharmaTheCat.com, winner of the 10 Best On The Web Award. 30 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory focusing on the consequences an action will have on everyone affected by that action. Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), applying the utilitarian principle of maximising pleasure and minimising suffering, developed a system for measuring pleasure and pain. We will refer to combinations of pleasure and pain as utility, which is equivalent to the concept of welfare. The right action, according to Bentham, maximises utility. The conceptual foundations of utilitarian analysis were first established by Jeremy Bentham in 1823 and John Stuart Mill in 1863. Utilitarianism recognises an action as being ethical if it leads to the greatest good for the greatest number using utility (welfare) as the guiding principle on which ethical decisions are based. At the heart of consequential ethics is a rejection of the absolutist moral position central to nonconsequential ethical theories. Consequential ethics acknowledges the moral significance of the relative context of each action; and evaluating morality from the expected impact of the action on utility. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) distinguished different levels of pleasure, prioritising higher order pleasures (e.g. intellectual, creative and social activities) over lower order pleasures (e.g. eating, lazing, sensual indulgence). His work lead to rule utilitarianism, which states that an act is right if it conforms to a rule within a system of rules whose acceptance leads to greater utility for society than available alternatives. Consider a situation where a police officer has evidence inadmissible in court which proves beyond doubt a dangerous criminal is guilty. The police officer also has evidence which, if submitted, may enable the criminal to be convicted of a crime he did not commit. What should the police officer do? A rule utilitarian may consider it unacceptable for a person to be punished for a crime they did not commit, a rule not to be violated in any circumstances, which would enable the dangerous criminal to walk free. An act utilitarian might conclude that the consequences of a dangerous criminal being free represents an unacceptable risk to the public and justifies the lesser of two evils; that is, seeking a (legally) wrongful conviction that enables imprisonment. Utilitarianism ultimately involves subjective judgement to determine the range of possible consequences of an action, and speculation as to the utility that will most probably result from each action. In practice, this necessitates a careful and considered approach to ethical decision making. The major criticism of utilitarianism is its consideration of actions that absolutists would condemn in any circumstances. Utilitarians, however, do not accept that any means imaginable can be defended by the achievement of a just goal. Questioning an absolute position reflects the grim reality that sometimes we are forced to choose the lesser of evils, and selecting the alternative which minimises harm may be the moral course of action. Your next reading discusses both act and rule utilitarianism including criticisms of consequential ethical theories. r Reading 3.1 Thiroux, P & Krasemann, K 2012, Ethics Theory and Practice, 11th edn, pp. 37–41. Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories 31 Contemporary issue – Climate change and business: a utilitarian analysis A relevant ethical question is how should business organisations respond to climate change? A small number of organisations are already ‘decarbonising’ their production systems by installing solar panels, implementing energy efficiency programs and redesigning their products to reduce energy consumption. However, most organisations are delaying any significant changes and are pursuing a ‘business-as-usual’ approach. It is feasible that a utilitarian view of climate change may recognise the only options available involve minimising negative impacts, acknowledging that all policy directions involve some level of harm to people and the ecological systems which support them. That is, the best-case scenario that maximises net utility may, in fact, just minimise reductions in human welfare. Utilitarians use utility (or welfare) rather than money as the unit of account on which social decisions should be made. Cost-benefit analysis must be interpreted carefully recognising that economic valuation of social and environmental costs and benefits is not precise. For example, it is impossible to estimate the cost of the loss of life in financial terms, or the benefit of avoiding the extinction of a species. Consider the utilitarian consequences of a business organisation considering the switch to a low-carbon production system, or delaying action. The organisation will need to consider the cost of immediate decarbonisation (for example, the cost of solar energy installation) compared to the costs of changing to other ‘non-carbon’ energy systems sometime in the future. At present, there is insufficient energy generation infrastructure in Australia (and most developed economies) to provide a large proportion of energy consumption from renewable sources; given that these economies were ‘developed’ by exploiting fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels are non-renewable resources in human timeframes, so change is required at some point in the future. A relevant social cost is the health impact of fossil fuels; however, this is also an economic cost as hospital and medical costs incurred by society rise as a result of increased illness. There are potential strategic ‘first mover advantages’ as consumers associate corporations that are seen to be responding to the climate change challenge with greenhouse gas abatement solutions. This may results in increased sales in the future. At a global level, we are locked in a standoff where only a small number of nations are making significant changes in response to climate change, with the rest waiting to see how ‘the rest of the world’ responds. Business is similarly making minimal change. However, decarbonising now will provide essential leadership and increase momentum for global change. Organisations that prioritise sustainability recognise the convergence of long-term business viability with sustainability; whereas unsustainable businesses trade environmental benefits off against economic benefits. Utilitarian analysis identifies two influential benefits for business to delay action; these are the 1. Short-term economic benefits of exploiting low cost fossil fuels; and 2. Ready availability of fossil fuel reserves and energy infrastructure. These benefits of the ‘do nothing approach’ must be compared to the positive consequences mentioned above, to determine if net utility is expected to rise or fall from the decision to delay action. In both the Stern and Garnaut reports, the conclusion was that the cost to society rises if the decision to decarbonise is delayed. Therefore, the business decision to delay action does not lead to an optimal outcome for society as a whole and fails the utilitarian rule of the greatest good for the greatest number. Peter Singer is a famous Australian utilitarian philosopher who lives in the United States, where he is Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University. He is a controversial person, but has been described by many, including Time magazine, as one of the world’s most influential people. The following interview with Singer will help you understand utilitarian thinking and provide some indication as to why it’s a controversial method of ethical analysis. r Reading 3.2 Hari, J 2004, ‘Peter Singer: Some people are more equal than others’, The Independent. 32 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Care ethics Care ethics is a consequential ethical theory as the right action is based on the expected consequences on the close (care) relationships we have with family, close friends and other with whom we have a special relationship of care. Care ethics is sometimes labelled feminine ethics, as empirical evidence suggests it is more often found that women use this alternative way of talking about ethics (Birsch 2002). Gender differences in moral reasoning have been debated in ethics and psychology literatures. Gilligan (1977) found that women use different moral language and logic to explain their actions compared to men. Women were found to apply a highly personal form of ethics, emphasising personal relationships, with compassion and care as key virtues of feminine ethics. Men tended to talk about ethics in terms of what is fair, just and right, acting as if decisions are made from an objective and detached position, viewing ethical decisions as similar to contractual problems solved by the law of contract. e Battle of the sexes In the teahouse, people were talking about the relative numbers of the sexes. ‘Throughout the world,’ said the baker, ‘men and women are equally balanced in numbers.’ ‘On the contrary,’ said Nasrudin, ‘there are about ten per cent men.’ ‘How do you make that out?’ ‘Ninety per cent do what their wives tell them to do,’ said Nasrudin. (Shah 1983, p. 144) Ethics of care uses a different language and method in talking about ethics replacing self interest with the welfare of the other. It also provides another tool for resolving ethical dilemmas. This theory also provides insight into possible differences in how men and women analyse and articulate ethics. Source: http://www.omax.org/t-omax_symbol_test.aspx Care relationships are most common with those we are naturally close to such as immediate family members and close friends. The obligation to care for others is determined by the potential for a reciprocal caring relationship (Birsch 2002, p. 162). Care ethics are briefly discussed in your next reading. r Reading 3.3 Pojman, L 2005, How Should We Live?, Thomson, Belmont, pp. 184–186. Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories 33 e How far is far enough? Nasrudin was at a loose end. His wife told him to go for a walk. He started up the road, and continued walking for two days. Finally, he met a man walking in the opposite direction. ‘When you arrive at my house,’ he said to him, ‘go in and ask my wife if I have gone far enough, or if she says that I must walk farther.’ (Shah 1983, p. 151) Ethical analysis Although we examine a range of ethical theories that are useful when making ethical decisions, none of these ethical theories works all the time unfortunately. An important skill is to select the best theory for a given type of ethical problem. Experience in ethical analysis is the only way to achieve this skill. To assist practical ethical decision making, various user-friendly decision frameworks have been developed. The framework typically consists of some variation of the following steps: 1. Identify the facts of the case 2. Define the ethical problem(s) 3. Develop a list of alternative solutions 4. Evaluate the alternatives using various ethical theories and relevant ethical codes 5. Choose the best alternative. Step four can be difficult and requires an understanding of how to utilise the various ethical theories. In a professional context (e.g. medical, legal and accounting ethical decision making), professional ethics codes provide benchmarks against which to measure proposed solutions. The critical ethical question in this professional context is: Does an action (or intended action) breach the rules or codes of conduct that govern the profession? When performing ethical analysis as distinct from making an ethical decision, you may not need to select a specific option. Instead, you may only compare the various alternative actions available. When making a decision, you obviously have to choose one of the available options; one of which may be to do nothing, which is also an ethical decision. e Zen Story Learning to be silent The pupils of the Tendai school used to study meditation before Zen entered Japan. Four of them who were intimate friends promised one another to observe seven days of silence. On the first day, all were silent. Their meditation had begun auspiciously, but when night came and the oil-lamps were growing dim, one of the pupils could not help exclaiming to a servant: ‘Fix those lamps.’ The second pupil was surprised to hear the first one talk. ‘We are not supposed to say a word,’ he remarked. ‘You two are stupid. Why did you talk?’ asked the third. ‘I am the only one who has not talked,’ concluded the fourth pupil. (Reps 2000, p. 68) 34 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Case Study – Supersize Me Watch the video Supersize Me in 7 mins: How too much of McDonald’s will make you feel! at https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=S9__23-zjhM or if you prefer you can watch the entire film at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcgAzuNKGNA Here is Morgan’s own summary of the consequences of his actions: In only 30 days of eating nothing but McDonald’s, I gained 24.5 lbs., my liver turned to fat, and my cholesterol shot up 65 points [to 230]. My body fat percentage went from 11 to 18%, still below the average of 22% for men and 30% for women. I nearly doubled my risk of coronary heart disease, making myself twice as likely to have heart failure. I felt depressed and exhausted most of the time, my mood swung on a dime, and my sex life was non-existent. http://www.unc.edu/courses/2005fall/engl/012/025/Handouts/SuperSizeMeDATA.pdf w Online discussion question Are McDonald’s responsible for the negative consequences linked to regular consumption of their main product lines? Topics 1 to 4 each contain an Assessment Planning Activity, which describes a structured approach to ethical analysis. These four activities are designed to assist your preparation for Assignments 1 and 2. An essential part of this preparation is your active engagement in the online discussions concerning these activities and assessments. a Assignment planning activity 3 In the Assignment Planning activity in Topic 1, you were required to define precisely an ethical issue and, in the Topic 2 activity, you were asked to identify facts relevant to the ethical issue by considering cultural and credibility issues. The next step is to perform the utilitarian analysis. Act utilitarianism requires a comparison of expected consequences from the ethical actions being considered. These consequences are forecasts of what the impacts of the actions should be. Unlike facts, which have already happened, utilitarian consequences are forward looking. However, the most useful information on which to base your forecast of expected consequences would be historical facts. For example, consider the case of Morgan Spurlock in Supersize Me. He gained considerable weight from his McDonald’s-only diet (fact). Maybe you are analysing the ethics of increased advertising of unhealthy fast food. What are the expected outcomes based on evidence of the impact of advertising on sales and consumption? Is the expected consequence of successful advertising of fast food increased weight of consumers and the associated health concerns? A difficult aspect of utilitarian analysis is to compare positive and negative consequences to enable a conclusion as to whether net utility (which is the value of positive less the value of negative consequences) will rise or fall. This step is necessarily subjective, even if you use Bentham’s mathematical method, which relies on subjective estimation of weights and values assigned to each consequence. Online discussion boards are set up to facilitate discussion of Study Guide activities and case studies. Topic 3 Consequential ethical theories 35 Concluding comments The two critical learning outcomes from this topic are the process of act utilitarian ethical analysis, and the systematic step-by-step approach to ethical decision making. These two tools will be extremely useful to you in your assessments, your study of business, and in your professional and personal lives. Utilitarianism is similar to business decision making using cost-benefit analysis. It’s a rational process that should be used for all important decisions as it would obviously be naïve to do something significant without thinking through what the consequences might be! References Birsch, D 2002, Ethical Insights, A Brief Introduction, 2nd edn, McGraw Hill, Boston. Gilligan, C 1997, ‘Concepts of the Self and of Morality’, Harvard Educational Review, November, pp. 418–517. Shah, I 1983, The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mulla Nasrudin, Octagon Press, London. SOC10236 Applied E 36 thics and Sustainability 37 Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories Last night I dreamed of peace The following is a true story which describes the horror of war as seen through the eyes of a virtuous young doctor (who we will call T). T kept a diary whilst near the frontline of a war ravaging her country, providing a vivid account of the tragic consequences and courage of medical and military personnel. T volunteered to leave her home in the North and go to the warzone in the south out of patriotism, but also hoping to see the man she loved, who had enlisted as a liberation soldier. Her goal was to help remove the occupying force and liberate her country so it could experience peace and independence. In her diary she continually refers to the occupying force ravaging her motherland. The (enemy) are upon us like bloodthirsty devils … sinking their fangs into our bodies. Only when we have chased them all (away) will our blood stop pouring into the earth. Her medical clinic (crude huts) are constantly moved to avoid the enemy’s search and destroy operations. The enemy continues the sweeping pattern of destruction, sacking villages, burning houses, and seizing peasants’ rice stores … as they deliberately bomb local villages and medical clinics to weaken the support network. Death falls among us daily. A critical (medical) operation is successful … A life saved should be a great joy but … I feel … inadequate … I have stemmed but one bloodflow while countless others are still bleeding … I must mend all the wounds of our nation. T records the extreme physical effort required to move patients to avoid enemy raids, to haul food to their remote location and to work from early in the morning to late at night operating on patients, training medical personnel and providing medical treatment to wounded soldiers on the frontline. Despite her continual heroics she describes herself as a weak girl who is used to being pampered by her parents. All day and night, the sounds of bombs, jet planes, gunships … are deafening. The forest is gouged and scarred by bombs, the remaining trees stained yellow by toxic chemicals. We’re affected by the poison too … severely fatigued … arms and legs weary … appetites gone. The debilitating effect of the poison causes illness so that some soldiers can neither move nor eat. This morning, they bring me a wounded soldier. A phosphorus bomb has burned his entire body. An hour after being hit, he is still burning, smoke rising from his body. I stand frozen … pieces of his skin fall off, curled up like crumbling sheets of rice cracker. His girlfriend, who carried the soldier to the clinic, cannot swim but crosses the rising river to get serum for a possible transfusion. There are numerous mines laid by the enemy in the jungle and on the road sides. When triggered they release 700 steel ball bearings in a 50 metre arc, sometimes killing or tearing the limbs off children on their way to school. Why are there are such terrible, cruel people who want to use our blood to water their tree of gold? So much and still not enough for their greedy pockets … not enough to satisfy the foolish desire of the bloodthirsty devils. T’s story is one of unfulfilled love. As an attractive young woman saving the lives of injured soldiers, many of her patients fall in love with her. Initially she remains true to her first love, but after years of not seeing him and believing he does not truly love her she becomes lonely and broken hearted, despite the widespread adoration of friends and patients. T becomes very close to many but refuses intimacy. 38 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Perhaps I will meet the enemy, and perhaps I will fall, but I hold my medical bag firmly regardless, and people will feel sorry for this girl who was sacrificed for the revolution when she was still young and full of verdant dreams. And sacrificed she was without ever experiencing true love, intimacy or seeing her beloved family again before she died at age 27. … the 2nd Platoon spotted four people moving toward them down a jungle trail. One of them was Dr. Dang Thuy Tram (T), dressed in black pants and a black blouse, and wearing Ho Chi Minh sandals. The Americans opened fire, killing Thuy … Extracts from Last night I dreamed of peace, the diary of Dang Thuy Tram. (Dang, 2007) (www.echonews.com.au) Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Last night I dreamed of peace Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 4.1 to 4.5 3.5 Film: Touching the void 1 Online activity 0 Assignment preparation activity 0.5 Case study: Ethics, economics and war 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision Quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 4.1 Gibson, K 2014, In Introduction to Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 78–80. 4.2 Birsch, J 2001, Ethical Insights, A Brief Introduction, McGraw Hill, Boston, pp. 135–143. 4.3 Dobson, J 2007, ‘Applying virtue ethics to business: The agent-based approach’, Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organisation Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, viewed January 15, 2012 at http:// digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=fin_fac 4.4 Gerloff, P 2005, Ethical Fitness ® – Choosing between Right vs. Right, An Interview with Rushworth Kidder, viewed January 15, 2012 at http://www.morethanmoney.org/articles. php?article=Ethical-Fitness---Choosing-between-Right-vs.-Right_319 4.5 Bilmes, LJ & Stiglitz, JE 2008, ‘The Iraq war will cost us $3 trillion, and much more’, Washington Post, 9. Film Touching the void Watch on YouTube, or hire the film from your local DVD store, or watch the film extract on the lecture recording for Week 4. Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories 39 Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • distinguish nonconsequentialist from consequentialist ethical theories • describe and use Kant’s categorical imperative to solve ethical problems • explain the major features of virtue ethics • describe key ethical principles. Nonconsequential ethical theories Topic 3 identified ethical egoism and utilitarianism as ethical theories that focus on the consequences of actions. Decision making using a utilitarian ethical approach requires the comparison of expected pleasure and pain consequences from alternative actions. The right action is the one that offers the greatest net balance of pleasure over pain. In this topic, we discuss ethical theories that focus on the intrinsic nature of actions or the underlying motive of the actor (refer Figure 4.1). Figure 4.1 Motive–Act–Consequences model In this topic logic of Kant’s duty ethics replaces consequences as the determinant of the morality of actions. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato argued that the power of reason could determine what is right. Plato cautioned against misleading sensory observations that are governed by passion and desire, and to find moral truth with the wisdom of reason (Waller 2005). Nonconsequentialist ethics are also concerned with the motivation that underpins actions, in the belief that the intentions of the actor are critical to determining right and wrong. Consequences of actions are not always predictable or within the control of the actor, whereas the underlying intent exists prior to the action. e The Heart is our Garden The Heart is our Garden, and along with each action there is an intention that is planted like a seed. We can use a sharp knife to cut someone, and if our intention is to do harm, we will be a murderer. We can perform an almost identical action, but if we are a surgeon, the intention is to heal and save a life. The action is the same, yet depending on the purpose or intention, it can be either a terrible act or a compassionate act. (Kornfield, J 1993, p. 272) Consider the moral issue of honesty. There is something inherently right about telling the truth, and there is something inherently wrong with lying. But is this always the case? Can you think of examples where someone (maybe yourself) has been hurt by the truth? Would you have been better off (consequentially) if the truth was not revealed to you? Is there a universal rule that it is always better to tell the truth? Kant’s answer to this question was a definitive Yes! His logic (which is explored in more detail in the categorical imperative section of this topic) was that if we believe that the truth is flexible and we can lie if we want, we must accept that everyone could lie all of the time and that this would (in this perverse world) be morally ‘right’. But if everyone lies all of the time, there is no concept of truth, which means there is no concept of lying, and the logic of this generalisation collapses. Remember that Kant is an absolutist and that he uses logic such as in this truth-telling example to distinguish right from wrong actions. 40 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Kantian ethics Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) objected to morality being determined by consequences. His argument was twofold. First, many consequences are outside the control of, or contrary to the intention of the actor. Secondly, Kant rejected the notion that morality is determined by maximising a certain state such as utility or happiness. He felt that humans had intrinsic value beyond such states. However, the right intention or motivation is within the control of the actor, who, according to Kant, is the ultimate determinant of the morality of an act. For Kant, the actor performs a moral act out of a sense of duty since he/she knows what is inherently right; hence the term Kant’s duty ethics. “You were hungry? Case dismissed.” Source: http://members.aol.com/lshauser/phlcomix.html Kant’s primary ethical principle was that, before acting, you need to consider whether the rule that justifies your action has universal application in all similar situations. This rule is referred to as the categorical imperative. Kant’s categorical imperative Kant’s categorical imperative states that an act is immoral unless the rule that would authorise it is applicable to all persons in similar circumstances. Kant is suggesting that, before acting, we need to consider two questions: 1. What is the rule that authorises the intended act? 2. Does this rule have universal application? When testing for universal application, we need to consider whether universalisation is logically incoherent (or internally consistent), or whether it is inherently a self-contradictory or self-defeating statement. Consider the example of borrowing money with no intention of repaying the debt. The rule that authorises the act of non repayment of debt would be: If you need to it is permissible to borrow money with no intention of repayment of the debt. Generalising this rule as universal law would be self-defeating as the process of lending money is based on the expectation of repayment; hence the universalised law is self contradictory. Kant concluded we have a duty (with no exceptions) not to commit this act. This second example was contributed by a former student in this unit. This student was considering copying the major assignment from a classmate, so he decided to apply Kant’s categorical imperative to determine if this act was ethical. He formulated a rule to authorise this action: It is OK to copy an assignment from another student in the class. He then attempted to universalise this rule: It is OK for every student to copy their assignment from another student in the class. He noted the inherent contradiction, because if everyone copies, no one actually does the assignment, so there is nothing to copy! Of course, he was only joking and this was hypothetical. Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories 41 This was a good example of setting up the rules that led to the self-contradiction. In fact, it is very hard to do this with many ethical actions. Be careful not to confuse this process with consequential logic, e.g. you cannot say ‘the rule cannot be universalised as the consequences will not maximise net utility’; or with what is legal, as you can also not say ‘the rule cannot be universalised as it would be illegal’. Legality and morality are different tests. However, there is a version of Kantian rationality that appears to consider consequences. Kant provided the example of a prosperous person being asked for charitable help. He considers not helping. If such behaviour is universalisable, that is, could we rationally want to live in a world in where no one acted to help others? This seems the same as considering consequences in the same way that utilitarians do. The distinction, however, is that utilitarians would consider the impact action (no one helping others) on happiness, whereas Kantians ask whether a rational person would want to universalise the acts of not helping others. In your next reading, Gibson provides a brief overview of Kantian ethics. r Reading 4.1 Gibson, K 2014, In Introduction to Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 78–80. Kant’s rational approach argues that, when the universalisation of a rule creates a logical contradiction, the act must be unethical. If the universalised rule is it is always morally right to steal, Kant argued this is a logical contradiction, as something cannot be stolen unless personal rights to own property exist. But if it is universally permissible to steal, personal property rights must not exist. Thus there is an inherent selfcontradiction in the general rule authorising stealing. e What is real evidence? A neighbour called on Nasrudin. ‘Mullah, I want to borrow your donkey.’ ‘I am sorry,’ said the Mullah, ‘but I have already lent it out.’ As soon as he had spoken, the donkey brayed. The sound came from Nasrudin’s stable. ‘But Mullah, I can hear the donkey, in there!’ As he shut the door in the man’s face, Nasrudin said, with dignity: ‘A man who believes the word of a donkey in preference to my word does not deserve to be lent anything.’ (Shah 1983, p. 27) Virtue ethics We have covered two out of the three major schools of ethical thought, which are: 1. Utilitarianism which focuses on expected consequences 2. Kantian ethics which focuses on duty and motivation 3. Virtue ethics which focuses on the character of a person, and the importance of being a good person, rather than one’s actions. The Greek philosopher Aristotle developed virtue ethics on the assumption that humans have well-being (or happiness) as an ultimate objective, and virtues are character traits that enable this objective to be achieved. Moral virtues are defined as the mean (average) between two extreme emotional positions. For example, in Table 4.3, the appropriate virtue in a dangerous situation is courage, which represents a middle path between cowardice and recklessness. Generosity is a virtue, whereas stinginess and extravagance are undesirable extremes when managing money. An absence of emotion is apathy, whereas extreme anger turns to wrath. Our virtuous person walks the middle path and is amiable, generous and courageous. 42 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Table 4.3 Virtues as means Area Defect Excess Virtue Dangerous situation Cowardice Recklessness Courage Giving money Stinginess Extravagance Generosity Anger Apathy Wrath Amiable Source: Based on Birsch, D 2001, Ethical Insights, A Brief Introduction, p. 141 Figure 4.5 Overboard (http://www.wutsamada.com/comix/goodx2.htm) Contemporary issue: case of a virtuous doctor Doctors are expected to put the welfare of their patients ahead of personal financial gain; an ethical principle referred to as medical beneficence. In 1994 and 1995, there was a terrible and tragic conflict in Rwanda between two opposing ethnic groups: the Hutu and the Tutsi. A hospital caring for disabled patients from one of these ethnic groups was located in an area being overrun by the opposing ethnic group. A United Nations plane was sent in to evacuate the international aid workers, but there was insufficient space and time to evacuate the disabled patients. These patients were left knowing they would be slaughtered within days. A young Rwandan doctor from the same tribe who was caring for the patients was given the opportunity to escape. He refused, saying he could not leave his patients. His patients were going to die anyway. Utilitarians would regard this act as wrong since, if he survived, the young doctor could care for other patients; in other words, there would be positive consequences caused by the action to save the doctor’s life which would increase net utility. Even Kantian ethics would not require such an extreme personal sacrifice, as the duty of responsibility of doctors does not include the decision to accept certain death. But this was a heroic act of virtue and self sacrifice. In your next reading, Birsch discusses the virtue theory of ethics. r Reading 4.2 Birsch, J 2001, Ethical Insights, A Brief Introduction, McGraw Hill, Boston pp. 135–143. In your next reading, the author applies virtue ethics to business activity and, in particular, the process of business management. The author concludes that business managers require training in the desirability of virtue-based behaviour if they are to attain the identified virtues of honesty, fairness, prudence and courage. Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories 43 r Reading 4.3 Dobson, J 2007, ‘Applying virtue ethics to business: The agent-based approach’, Business and Organization Ethics Network, Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organisation Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, viewed January 15, 2012 at http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1004&context=fin_fac Comparison of ethical theories We have examined ethics from the different points of view of utilitarianism, Kantianism and virtue ethics. Each of these methods has limitations that need to be acknowledged. Utilitarianism is sometimes interpreted as the end justifies the means; that is, the process to achieve a desired outcome is ignored. Utilitarianism is often used to justify war, where forecasts of negative consequences (collateral damage) are typically understated. It is always a difficult and subjective process to forecast future consequences and this is a major weakness inherent in utilitarian analysis. Kantian ethics is an absolutist ethical system that looks for order, stability and clarity rather than flexibility or the potential to find creative solutions to unique ethical problems on a case by case basis, using Kant’s system of logical imperatives. Unfortunately, the process of universalisation of the general rule most often does not lead to a logical self-contradiction, but would lead to unwanted consequences that are outside Kant’s ethical reasoning process. Virtue ethics focuses on character and personal integrity and asks the question what sort of person should I aim to be? However, what set of virtues are most important? The Greeks in Aristotle’s era identified courage, temperance (moderation) and justice as the defined virtues. Hundreds of years later, the Christians felt faith, hope and charity were most important; whereas the Chinese might focus on wisdom, respect and honour. So virtue ethics becomes a relativist ethic as the notion of virtue is culturally determined. Source: http://www.dilbert.com 44 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Contemporary issue: Does capital punishment belong in a virtuous society? The three major schools of ethics which can be summarised by the following three simple questions: 1. What are the consequences of what I am about to do? This is the utilitarian approach to ethics which equates the moral act with the act that leads to the greatest happiness for those affected. 2. What if everyone did that? This is the Kantian school where an act is moral if you can will this act to be universalised without contradiction; that is everyone in the same circumstances must be morally required to do the same thing. 3. What would a virtuous person do? This is Aristotle’s virtue ethics where we focus on the character traits of the person we ought to be. Let’s apply these three simple questions to the issue of capital punishment. Capital punishment involves execution after proper legal trial for specific extreme criminal acts. The countries in which most executions take place are China, Iran, the USA, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. Main arguments in support of the death penalty are the belief it deters potential murderers; it prevents reoffending; and supporters believe it provides just retribution for heinous crimes. Opponents believe that capital punishment is an act of vengeance that violates the basic human right to life; will always result in innocent people being executed given inherent flaws in the legal system (in the USA 116 people have been subsequently found not guilty and released from death-row and 56% of death row inmates are black or Hispanic suggesting racial bias); and the methods of execution are believed to cause unnecessary pain and suffering. Applying the second question above specifically to capital punishment leads to ‘what if every country executes criminals after due legal process for specific crimes?’ This policy could be applied globally without inherent contradiction. This may not be the type of world you want to live in but that is a question of consequences which is not relevant to Kantian ethics. Using this one simple test does not lead to the conclusion that capital punishment is unethical. I don’t believe we will resolve this issue with reference to the first two questions or my attempt to apply them in the preceding all too brief analysis. Opponents will say their arguments are more substantial whilst supporters will argue the same from their perspective. But the implications of the third question applied more generally ‘what kind of society ought we to be’ I feel has a more compelling outcome. The actions of this virtuous society that we aspire to must not in any way resemble the actions of perpetrators of heinous crimes whom we are punishing. We should aspire to be a compassionate, peaceful and tolerant society which values every human life. Sanctioning a system which takes away human life of both guilty and inevitably some innocent ‘victims’ in the name of justice doesn’t fit my understanding of this virtuous society. Admittedly the selection of specific virtues is subjective. However taking this aspirational approach to ethics does force us to examine our values, priorities and what we believe we should be. (Source: www.echo.com.au) w Film Touching the Void. Watch at http://documentaryheaven.com/touching-the-void/ or on YouTube. It is recommended you at least watch the section up until Simon’s decision whether or not to cut the rope. Touching the Void, a highly controversial true story of two mountain climbers, Joe Simpson and Simon Yates fateful 1985 ascent of the 21,000-foot Siula Grande in the Peruvian Andes. They used a technique called alpine style that relied on speed, good weather, minimal supplies, and maximum fitness. After successfully reaching the summit, and on their way back down the mountain, Simpson shatters his leg in a fall. Yates tried to lower his partner down the mountain with a rope, but Simpson slipped off a ledge and was left hanging helplessly on the end of a rope waiting to die. The two climbers could not verbally communicate as there was a raging blizzard. Yates hangs on with all his strength. He doesn’t have the strength to pull his partner up the mountain. He hangs on for hours until he starts to slowly slide down the mountain dragged by the dead weight of his friend and climbing partner. He realises that his strength will give way and they will both fall to certain death. Topic 4 Nonconsequential ethical theories 45 Yates was confronted with a terrible ethical dilemma as to whether he should cut loose his climbing partner, who would then fall down the mountain to certain death; or stay tethered to his partner, whose dead weight was dragging them both down the mountain. Yates makes a decision that has been fiercely debated for 20 years. t Online discussion question Should Simon Yates cut the rope and save his own life? Analyse this ethical decision using the four different ethical theories covered in Topics 2 and 3. Contemporary issue In 1996, during their Everest summit bid, two Japanese climbers passed three Indian climbers in varying stages of collapse high on the mountain. They made no effort to offer them succour, food, water, oxygen, or simply a consoling hand. They avoided eye contact and went on to their eventual triumph on the summit. They passed the still-living Indians on the way down to the high camp. There was nothing they could have done to rescue the Indians but they could have displayed a shred of compassion. On reaching base camp, Eisuk Shiqekawa announced: … above 8000 metres is not a place where people can afford morality. If that were true, no-one should go there. (Simpson 2003 p. 124) One of the ethical principles identified by Joe Simpson as important among traditional mountain climbers was the spirit of support and co-operation. If a fellow climber was in need of help, the obvious reaction was to stop the climb and provide support and rescue the climber if needed. In this example, we are told the Indian climbers were beyond rescue. How could their health have been assessed without a medical examination? The motivation of the Japanese climbers was a successful climb to the summit. A common ethical rule is to ‘help other people, especially when cost to oneself is minimal’. The Japanese climbers might argue that the act of helping would have jeopardised their attempt on the summit, and therefore was not a minimal cost. This would be true of a rescue attempt as that would place the Japanese climbers’ lives at risk as well. The passing of another climber should not be treated as an inconvenient obstacle to be ignored to maximise the chance of realising one’s ambition to climb a mountain. Sitting with the Indian climbers for a short time and offering whatever comfort they could, would surely be the minimum moral standard expected. Ethical principles Rushworth Kidder is a well-known business ethicist in the United States. He hosts the Institute for Global Ethics, which provides an excellent online newsletter with regular commentary on major ethical cases from around the world. Kidder often refers to the core ethical values of honesty, responsibility, respect, fairness, and compassion when resolving ethical problems. That is, for an action to be ethical, it must contain with each of these principles. Kidder outlines this approach in your next reading, which is the transcript of an interview. r Reading 4.4 Gerloff, P 2005, Ethical Fitness® – Choosing between Right vs. Right, An Interview with Rushworth Kidder, viewed March 3, 2014 at http://www.morethanmoney.org/articles. php?article=Ethical-Fitness---Choosing-between-Right-vs.-Right_319 46 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Case study – Ethics, economics and war The opening vignette to this topic provided a tragic account of the human cost of war as seen through the eyes of a young, North Vietnamese doctor, Dang Thuy Tram. Reading 4.3 discusses the economic cost of the Iraq war. Governments often analyse the decision to go or not to go to war on a consequential basis, and sometimes with more focus on the financial costs and benefits. r Reading 4.3 Bilmes, LJ & Stiglitz, JE 2008, The Iraq war will cost us $3 trillion, and much more, Washington Post, 9. a Online discussion question Should the decision to go to war be based on a Kantian principled analysis or a consequential ethical analysis? Topics 1 to 4 each contain an Assessment Planning Activity, which describes a structured approach to ethical analysis. These four activities are designed to assist your preparation for Assignments 1 and 2. An essential part of this preparation is your active engagement in the online discussions concerning these activities and assessments. a Assignment planning activity 4 The next step for your assignment preparation is to apply the categorical imperative to your chosen ethical issue. Back in Topic 1, you began this process by defining the ethical issue. What is the action which you are analysing to determine if it is ethical or unethical? This should not be an action with an easy yes/no answer. For example, you are not looking at whether you should be good to your mum! So avoid obvious ethical acts. Define a rule which authorises this ethical act which you are considering. Now express this rule in general form. Is it logical for this rule to be applied in all similar cases? Is the universalisation self-contradictory? Would you rationally will this rule to be universal law? Does universalisation breach any of Kant’s other principles such as the sanctity of human life, the practical imperative or the right to autonomy or non-coercion. These are not easy questions to answer as this is a difficult ethical theory to apply. References Birsch, D 2001, Ethical Insights, A Brief Introduction, McGraw Hill, Boston. Đặng, Thùy Trâm 2007, Last night I dreamed of peace: The diary of Dang Thuy Tram, Random House of Canada. Kornfield, J 1993, A Path with Heart, Bantam, New York. Shah, I 1983, The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mulla Nasrudin, Octagon Press, London. Simpson, J 2003, The Beckoning Silence, Vintage, London. Waller, B 2005, Consider Ethics, Theory, Readings and Contemporary Issues, Pearson Longman, New York. 47 Topic 5 Applied business ethics The myth of amoral business Let’s start with a hypothetical case. You work in the clothing and textiles industry as a fabric buyer. You travel around the world buying high-quality fabrics at prices lower than Australian-made fabric. You order a large shipment of exotic silk and discover it’s produced in factories employing children under 12 years old. You have also heard that wages paid are extremely low, children typically work 12-hour days and working conditions are both unsafe and unhealthy. What do you do? If you prioritise your company’s profits ahead of all other considerations (the business of business is business!) you may proceed with the order with a clear conscience. If you believe free trade provides better outcomes, you may convince yourself that trading with producers in developing countries is good for them, so it’s win–win! If you are a moral relativist, you may decide that it is inappropriate for you to judge the morality of another culture’s employment practices, and you do not have sufficient knowledge of the factors that lead to cultural differences. You note that it’s common in Western countries for children to start working at home, or on the farm at a young age. If you are a moral absolutist, you may boycott the purchase of the product as you believe children should never be required to work long hours in an unhealthy environment and should always attend school gaining an education and socialising with other children. From an ethical perspective, you may decide that slavery, exploitation of children, poor occupational health and safety standards, and the educational needs of children outweigh your company’s need for cheap fabric. You may even begin to broker fair trade agreements where your company pays a reasonable price for goods purchased from suppliers who follow ethical employment practices and provide safe and healthy conditions for all workers. Business decisions always involve ethics. Every economic transaction causes social and environmental impacts (sometimes referred to as externalities), and there is no convincing moral reason to ignore these impacts. Furthermore, a major cause of unsustainability is the failure to fully incorporate social and environmental impacts into business decision making. De George (2006) discusses the Myth of Amoral Business. The myth is that business is primarily concerned with profit making, and the means of making profits; that is, buying and selling goods and services is an activity without moral dimension. Ethics and business don’t mix, or so says the myth. Of course this makes business decisions much easier. No need to worry about difficult ethical problems, just be economically efficient in the short term and make decisions that lead to highest expected profit outcomes! The Myth of Amoral Business is debunked, according to De George, by the following: 1. Many corporate scandals that expose unethical business behaviour. 2. Formation of consumer and environmental interest groups such as Consumer Magazine and Greenpeace that continually confront and expose unethical corporate behaviour. 3. Interest shown throughout various media in business ethics issues. 4. Growth in ethical codes and programs evident in business organisations. Two of the largest known corporate scandals are Enron and WorldCom, and we discuss the former at the end of this topic. (www.echonews.com.au) 48 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: The myth of amoral business Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 5.1 to 5.5 3 Film: The Corporation 1.5 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Corporate case studies – Shell Oil, Enron 0.5 Online discussion questions 1 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 5.1 McCoy, B 2003, ‘The parable of the Sadhu’, in A Gini (ed.) Case Studies in Business Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 24–28. 5.2 APES 2010, 110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, pp. 11–22. 5.3 Preston, 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 10, pp. 169–175. 5.4 Darley, J 1996, ‘How organisations socialize individuals into evildoing’, in Collins-Chobanian (ed.), 2005, Ethical Challenges to Business as Usual, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 211–223. 5.5 Thiroux & Krasemann 2009, Chapter 15, Ethics Theory and Practice, 10th edn, pp. 380–382. Film The Corporation is directed by Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott. You can watch this film on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y888wVY5hzw. Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • describe corporate social responsibility, corporate culture and corporate ethics • discuss the main ethical issues in ‘The Parable of the Sidhu’, ‘Shell Oil in Nigeria’ and ‘Enron’ case studies • explain the relevance of ethics to professions such as accounting. Introduction The focus in this topic is three classic business ethics cases: The Parable of the Sidhu, Shell Oil in Nigeria, and Enron. The infamous Shell Oil in Nigeria case concerns multinational intervention and the tragic death of Nigerian Ken Saro-Wira and eight other activists executed on charges fabricated by the Nigerian Government. The Enron case involves corporate fraud on a massive scale and is very much the symbol of modern corporate fraud. Enron also involves the issues of corrupt corporate culture, management dishonesty and Topic 5 Applied business ethics 49 misrepresentation toward employees and shareholders, conflicts of interest with professional advisors, accounting misrepresentation, audit failure, and failure of corporate codes of ethics. The film this week is the classic documentary The Corporation. This 2004 film is widely acclaimed for its insight into the dark side of the corporate world. The film is about 2.5 hours long, so you may decide to watch it over the next two weeks. In Topics 9 and 10, we will look at challenges confronted by business organisations that replace the profit objective with sustainability and require the pursuit of a mix of ecological, social and economic ends. We don’t suggest that the transition to sustainable business activity will be easy! Figure 5.1 Unfair dismissal laws Howard jobs (http://www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au/cartoon_3176.html) Continuing our mountain climbing theme from Topic 4, your next reading provides a novel example of a failure to take responsibility and provides clear parallels with corporate decision making. r Reading 5.1 McCoy, B 2003, ‘The parable of the Sadhu’, in A Gini (ed.), Case Studies in Business Ethics, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 24–28. Professional ethics The general public places a great deal of trust and responsibility in the hands of professionals representing (for example) the medical, legal and accounting communities. These professions are expected to apply their specialist skills and knowledge not in their own best interests, but in the best interests of their clients. Professions such as accounting build their brand around this very notion of the highest levels of professional integrity. The Accounting Professional and Ethical Standards Board (APESB) has developed an extensive code of ethics and professional standards (APES 110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants) with which CPA Australia members must comply. This code establishes the fundamental principles of integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality and professional behaviour, as well as the fundamental responsibility to act in the public interest at all times. Your next reading is a short extract from this code identifying these important ethical principles. r Reading 5.2 APES 2010, 110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, pp. 11–22. 50 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Contemporary issue – The freedom paradox A 2009 film The Invention of Lying is set in a society where people haven’t learnt how to tell lies. Everyone tells the truth all the time. After a few laughs where characters are brutally honest to incompetent work colleagues and sexually unappealing blind dates, this premise wears a bit thin. However, I really loved the truthfulness of the film’s TV advertisement for Coca-Cola. Here is the text of the ad. Hi, I’m Bob. I’m the spokesperson for the Coca Cola Company. I’m here today to ask you to continue buying Coke. I’m sure it’s the drink you’ve been drinking for years and if you still enjoy it, well, I’d like to remind you to buy it again sometime soon. It’s basically just brown sugar water. We haven’t changed the ingredients much lately, so there is nothing new I can tell you about that. Ahh, changed the can around a little bit though. You can see the colours are different there, and we’ve added a polar bear so the kids like us. Coke’s very high in sugar and like any high calorie soda it can lead to obesity in children and adults who don’t sustain a very healthy diet. And that’s it. It’s Coke. It’s very famous, everyone knows it. I’m Bob. I work for Coke and I’m asking you to not stop buying Coke. That’s all. (Bob takes a sip) It’s a bit sweet. Thank you. Clive Hamilton in his book The Freedom Paradox (2008) observes that, even though in industrial societies most of us live with unprecedented levels of material wealth, an abundance of choice and high levels of political and personal freedom, this being a product of democratic Western liberal market economies, this apparent freedom is compromised by our consumer addictions. He directs the blame for the cultivation of behaviour driven by impulse, temporary emotion and moral weakness at the marketing industry. Hamilton distinguishes superficial from considered awareness. Marketers trigger our superficial preferences stimulating our wants, which are psychologically unlimited and turning them into needs for a new car, a new face, a new TV or a new happiness drug. These impulses are financed instantly by credit cards before our rational and considered awareness kicks in. Hamilton argues that this ethic of consumerism leads to over consumption and diseases of affluence such as depression, obesity, heart disease, etc. all of which directly reduce happiness. However, when we utilise our considered awareness, we are more likely to act for our personal and collective benefit. Hamilton’s thesis is that this manipulation and exploitation by the marketing industry is a direct assault on our freedom to exercise our own free will and is contrary to our overall well being. Getting back to the Coke ad, it’s so honest that there is not much chance of manipulation here. It would also be cheap to produce as there were no frills, just Bob talking to the camera, and he was pretty ordinary and wouldn’t earn celebrity endorsement rates. But this is not normal advertising practice. Hamilton (p. 56) provides the following challenge to the marketing industry: Deception is essential to modern marketing. It is not true that a particular brand of margarine will impart a happy family life or that a sports car will deliver sexual allure. Yet the purpose of advertising is to convince us that these things are true. Supporters of the market who might suggest that this is just harmless fun and that consumers know to apply a degree of scepticism need to explain why year after year billions of dollars are committed to such a futile activity … www.echonews.com.au Corporate social responsibility Increasing recognition that organisations are accountable to society for the environmental and social impacts of their business activities has led to the concept of corporate social responsibility. The principle of corporate social responsibility can be traced to the early 1900s, when the negative impacts of corporate excesses were recognised by American society. This led to the view that a social contract exists between corporations and a wide group of stakeholders, including society-at-large which sanctions the continuing operation of business. A minimalist social view of corporate responsibility is that the social contract between organisations and society is defined by market economic principles and strict legal compliance. A broader view of corporate social responsibility extends to embrace ethical matters, recognising: • intergenerational equity (humankind’s moral obligation to preserve the environment) • intragenerational equity (humankind’s moral obligation to eliminate poverty) • interspecies equity (rights of other forms of life) • unsustainability of business as a direct cause of ecological and social crisis. Topic 5 Applied business ethics 51 The principle of corporate social responsibility raises issues of morality. Corporations function within an economic framework motivated by profits and wealth generation. Corporate management are not qualified or even motivated to set moral priorities. This leads to the need to open up organisations to provide stakeholders with the necessary information to enable them to make the necessary moral choices. Corporations are made up of people that make decisions that have social implications. It would be incoherent for society to: … condone as amoral actions on the part of corporations that would be immoral on the part of the individuals who actually make the decisions for the corporation. (Cottell (Jr) 1991, p. 91) If it is accepted that corporations have moral duties to act as do individuals, a Kantian basis for corporate social responsibility can be established. … a moral person has the duty to take the right action regardless of the consequences. (Cottell (Jr) 1991, p. 89) The corporate culture of profit-seeking is strong within contemporary business organisations. Adding a Kantian moral basis to corporate behaviour is consistent with the view that the co-existence of business and society is only possible if corporations pursue profits within a context of social and environmental constraints. Source: http://www.dilbert.com In an article in The Economist, ‘Just good business’ (Jan 19, 2008), it was acknowledged that although corporate social responsibility (CSR) is now a mainstream business activity, most of the activity is defensive; that is, in response to negative publicity and public mistrust, and a strategy for managing risk. However some companies recognise that it makes strategic sense to embed CSR throughout the corporation’s activities so that social and environmental impacts are considered as a routine part of corporate decision making. 52 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Figure 5.2 A greenhouse nightmare In your next reading Preston links ethics to corporate social responsibility. r Reading 5.3 Preston 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, Chapter 10, pp. 169–175. A Cost of Doing Business The truth is, we can’t afford not to become involved in social problems. It has got to be a cost of doing business – and it will be costly – so that your community will be worth doing business in and living in. (Elisha Gray II, former head of Whirlpool Corporation) Corporate culture There are many and varied definitions of corporate culture. Some of the more common definitions include: • rules of conduct • how things are done • the prevailing business climate within the organisation • corporate values • patterns of behaviour • creation of values, beliefs, and practices necessary for success. Corporate culture could, potentially, encourage or inhibit moral action. Corporate culture is shaped by the organisation’s history and traditions. When employees are hired, they are usually inducted through a series of training programs. Over several years, employees are exposed to the organisation’s business practices. Decisions made will reflect the priorities of decision makers. Management may demonstrate loyalty and commitment to staff and the firm’s goals. Corporate retreats, social events, and long business lunches also contribute to the formation of culture. Influence over culture by individual employees tends to vary directly with an employee’s position in the management hierarchy. If top management exercise strong moral judgement in their corporate decision making, this provides strong encouragement for all the firm’s employees to act responsibly and ethically. Topic 5 Applied business ethics 53 Source: http://www.dilbert.com Of major concern is where employees are coerced into following organisational norms that conflict with their own personal morality. The profit motive creates strong pressure on decision makers to act unethically and, in some cases, illegally. This pressure may come from direct commands from top management, or indirect signals such as promoting those who conform, and overlooking employees who prioritise social wellbeing ahead of corporate profits. Psychologists refer to the phenomenon of groupthink where members of groups feel pressure to conform rather than challenge decisions made by the group. Your next reading is concerned with the influence corporate culture has on the decision making of individual employees. r Reading 5.4 Darley, J 1996, How organisations socialize individuals into evildoing, in S Collins-Chobanian (ed.) 2005, Ethical Challenges to Business as Usual, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, pp. 211–223. International business case study – Shell Oil in Nigeria An undesirable outcome of the increasingly globalised world economy has been the transfer of production operations to economically developing countries to exploit minimal labour and environmental standards. Referred to as the race to the bottom, examples include labour exploitation in international sweatshops, where workers, many of them children, are required to work long hours for minimal wages; dumping of toxic mining waste poisoning local rivers and members of the local communities who drink the water; and the refusal to clean up oil spills or fix leaking gas pipes. However, many impoverished people in the Third World would much prefer a job with low wages than no work at all. Acceptable wages and working conditions should be judged in the context of local standards and cost of living. There is a fundamental principle of international business that corporations should not become involved in political affairs of the nations in which they operate. The tragic case of Shell Oil in Nigeria challenges the very role of business organisations operating in foreign countries. Shell’s operation was centred in Ogoniland, a 400-square-mile area where 500,000 Ogoni people lived in a formerly pristine environment which, on the extraction of oil by Shell, became severely polluted, squalid living conditions. The Ogoni people’s agricultural production and human health was compromised by pollution from oil spills; 24 hours per day, seven days per week gas flaring; pipeline leakage and dumping of toxic waste on land and in waterways. Shell Oil used lower quality operating procedures than elsewhere given the Nigerian Government had enacted no regulations protecting the environment. Heavy pollution of air, water and soil destroyed the local economy on which the Ogoni depended for their livelihoods. Very little of the rich oil wealth taken from Ogoniland was given back to the people due to corruption within the Nigerian Government and profit taking by Shell Oil and its contractors. 54 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Ken Saro-wira was a local activist and writer who campaigned successfully, creating the Ogoni bill of rights, which demanded a fair share of oil wealth to be retained for the benefit of the Ogoni people. In 1994, Shell Oil facilities in Ogoniland were damaged by protestors and Shell temporarily ceased operation. The Nigerian Government, which was financially dependent on their share of oil revenue, and Shell were concerned that unrest would spread. Shell partly financed military operations to protect oil drilling throughout Nigeria. Towns were attacked in Ogoniland by government troops using weapons financed by Shell. In 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight activists were arrested and accused with charges fabricated by the Nigerian Government. A special tribunal was set up and the activists were quickly found guilty and executed. Britain’s Prime Minister John Major called the execution ‘judicial murder’. World leaders and human rights organisations called on Shell to intervene. The company’s response was: It is not for a commercial organisation to interfere in the legal process of a sovereign state such as Nigeria. Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth, but there was no oil embargo. One week after the executions, Shell announced a five billion dollar (US) partnership project with the Nigerian Government to extract natural gas. International condemnation of Shell followed along with consumer protests, which led to loss of Shell’s public image and credibility. Shell was aware of the heavy pollution and social problems their operating methods were causing. However, they failed to fix the problems in search of higher profits. This failure to take responsibility created the need for the Ogoni people to take political action, which led to the Nigerian government’s brutal response in executing the activists. Shell stated that privately they asked the Nigerian Government for clemency towards the activists. However, they did not speak out publicly and condemn the Nigerian government’s actions; instead they expanded operations in Nigeria. In response to their damaged public image, Shell introduced a corporate social responsibility program throughout the company emphasising their (new) commitment to human rights and environmental protection. This is exactly what we mean by corporate social responsibility often being a defensive action (that is in defence of negative publicity). Whether this was genuine in its implementation is difficult to gauge. In June 2009, Shell Oil settled a case for $15.5 million (US) and accepted legal responsibility for the death of Ken Saro-wira and the activists. So what is an organisation’s responsibility when operating overseas, particularly in terms of occupational health and safety and labour rates? Fair trade regimes and principles of sustainable livelihoods provide a worthy benchmark for international business. Building lasting relationships with suppliers, avoiding the temptation to exploit local workers by paying fair remuneration, providing world class safe and healthy work environments, and encouraging sustainable use of natural resources is the route to sustainable and ethical business partnerships. Very few corporations come close to these standards, which we explore in detail in Topic 10. Enron case study The most infamous corporate scandal is the Enron case, which sent shockwaves through the business and political communities in 2001. It resulted in the collapse of an enormous corporation (Enron), a huge chartered accounting firm (Arthur Anderson), and the implementation of controversial and onerous corporate governance standards (Sarbanes-Oxley Act). The next reading provides a brief introduction to ethical aspects of Enron. r Reading 5.5 Thiroux & Krasemann 2009, Chapter 15, Ethics Theory and Practice, 10th edn, pp. 380–382. Topic 5 Applied business ethics 55 Case study – The Corporation Like the Church, the Monarchy and the Communist Party in other times and places, the Corporation is today’s dominant institution. (The Corporation 2004, a film by Mark Achbar, Jennifer Abbott & Joel Bakan) c Film The Corporation received international acclaim in 2004 for exposing the dark side of corporate entities. This documentary is fairly lengthy and runs for about 2.5 hours. You can watch this film on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y888wVY5hzw. k Case question What are important lessons from The Corporation for our next generation of business leaders? SOC10236 Applied E 56 thics and Sustainability 57 Topic 6 Environmental ethics Terraforming Mars We all need to retire one day. Have you considered the possibility of buying a villa on newly terraformed, sunny Mars? Terraforming refers to the hypothetical process of engineering a planet on a massive scale to produce a habitat which will support human life. Despite its hypothetical status there is serious discussion taking place in science and academic communities as to how this could proceed. Mars is the likely candidate as it has polar icecaps and water contained within a layer of permafrost beneath its surface. To produce a breathable atmosphere, hypothetically the ice could be melted to create oceans and re-engineered using genetically modified organisms to release oxygen. A greenhouse effect could be created to warm the planet (we have experience with this) and change the climate so that plants and animals can be relocated to Mars via space shuttle. Assuming we can do this, should we? To the best of our knowledge Mars does not have life on the surface. However there could be life trapped below the surface. What do we do if we drill down beneath the permafrost and find something alive? Should we leave it and its habitat alone? Should we kill it, eat it, or put it on a leash and take it for a walk? Martians may be some form of microbe so that last option may be difficult. Some of the supporters of the terraforming project believe the reality Earth has a finite life requires humankind to search and prepare a new planetary home. Not to do so would condemn the human race to eventual extinction. Opponents suggest our environmental failures here on planet Earth leave us unqualified for the terraforming job. Introducing Earth species of plants and animals into an alien environment sounds like cane toads and lantana disasters on a massive scale, and what right do we have displacing extraterrestrial life with human life? There would be a lot we could learn about the origins of life on Earth from observing the nature of life (if there is any) on Mars. Is the continuing survival of humankind more important than preserving untouched the irreplaceable wilderness of a neighbouring planet? Given the human will to survive and quest for knowledge I can’t imagine the terraforming project will be permanently shelved. However it does raise the question of our ability to appreciate natural wilderness as a thing of great beauty. Can we appreciate the enormous Martian rock scapes and red deserts without the need to change them? What makes us think as humans we are capable of re-engineering an entire planet so that it is better? Is ‘more suitable for humans’ the same as ‘making it better’? Sometimes we over estimate our godlike abilities and making a new world to some is just playing god. The great German philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that motivation was critical to morality. If our motivation is to exploit Mars for profit, this will surely result in human kind wreaking havoc on a natural world (again) as we extract that which has monetary value (minerals and energy resources) and leave behind that which has no monetary value (pollution and waste). If we go to Mars just out of a scientific quest for knowledge, there are probably better things we can do with our time and resources. 58 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability If we go to Mars with a genuine love for life, whether that life be of Martian or Earthly origin; and if we strive to preserve that life; or if Mars is in fact a dead planet and we create new life where there is none; just maybe we could engage in an ethical act worthy of being citizens of the cosmos. (www.echonews.com.au) Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Terraforming Mars Read Study Guide 1.5 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 6.1 to 6.3 3 Film: Earthlings 1.5 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Case study: Factory farming 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 6.1 Hinman, L 2013, Contemporary Moral Issues, Diversity and Consensus, Pearson, Boston, pp. 440–441. 6.2 Vaughn, L 2010, Doing Ethics, Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues, WW Norton & Co, NY, pp. 498–507. 6.3 Pluhar, E 2010, ‘Meat and morality: Alternatives to factory farming’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, vol. 23, pp. 455–468. Film Earthlings – watch at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ce4DJh-L7Ys Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • distinguish the technological world view from the new ecological paradigm • distinguish ecocentric, anthropocentric and ecohumanist ethics • describe the principles of deep ecology • discuss speciesism and animal rights issues. Topic 6 Environmental ethics 59 Introduction The objective of sustainability is founded on the observation of an environmental crisis that is threatening life on Earth. What is the cause of humankind’s peculiar (and unique behaviour throughout the animal realm) of destroying its ecological life-support system? A strong contender for major cause is that the dominant technological worldview that determines our actions lacks a viable environmental ethic. In this topic we search for one. In this topic, we introduce relevant environmental ethical concepts, apply ethical theories discussed in earlier topics to environmental issues, and link the sustainability objective to the search for an underlying ethical framework to guide human decision making. Rights of animals and non-human species are vital to any discussions concerning humankind’s ethical relationship with the animate world. The film Earthlings provides a powerful and sometimes shocking account of discrimination against animals; and the case study this week examines the ethics of factory farming. The dominant mechanistic worldview The psychology of a species which destroys its only life-support system must be complex. Do we destroy the natural environment out of human greed? Are business organisations responsible for enormous levels of pollution and natural resource consumption to blame, particularly large multinationals engaging in the race to the bottom. Is the lack of clear and precise information concerning the reality (or exaggeration) of the environmental crisis stopping humankind from taking decisive action? Or are the destructive tools of science and technology the main cause of environmental destruction? Our search for a new environmental ethic is grounded in the belief that humankind’s destruction of the environment proceeds in the absence of a true ecological consciousness. Western society is driven by the dominant mechanistic (technological) worldview witnessed by man’s attempted domination of nature. Using the tools of science and technology, man has created an industrial process devoted to transforming natural wealth into material wealth in the belief this will increase his level of wellbeing. Pollution of the biosphere and depletion of natural resources are seen as unfortunate, although necessary, byproducts of an economic system that correctly rewards and prioritises entrepreneurial effort over environmental concerns. The new ecological paradigm In this context of increasing environmental destruction the dominant mechanistic worldview and its anthropocentric roots have been increasingly debated, leading to the development of a new environmental paradigm based on the assumption that humans are connected to other elements in the biosphere by the seamless interdependent web of life. Table 6.1 provides a comparison of the major assumptions of the dominant mechanistic worldview (DMW) compared to the assumptions of the new ecological paradigm (NEP). 60 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Table 6.1 Dominant mechanistic worldview versus the new ecological paradigm Dominant mechanistic worldview New ecological paradigm People are fundamentally different from all other creatures on Earth, over which they have dominion. Humans have exceptional characteristics, but remain one of many interdependent species. People are masters of their destiny; they can choose their goals and learn to do whatever is necessary to achieve them. Human affairs are influenced by social & cultural factors, and also intricate linkages of cause and effect in the web of nature. The world is vast and thus provides unlimited opportunities for humans. Humans are dependent on a finite biophysical environment which imposes potent physical and biological restraints. The history of humanity is one of progress; for every problem there is a solution and thus progress need never cease. Human inventiveness does not exempt human species from ecological laws. Humans are dependent on, connected to and constrained by the global ecosystem. This paradigm does not deny that humans are an exceptional species, but nevertheless a species which cannot escape the constraints of ecological laws, such as limits to human carrying capacity and limits to the level of consumption of natural resources. A stark contrast between the two worldviews depicted in Table 6.1 is that DMW is based on the assumption that supplies of natural resources are vast, whereas the NEP recognises the finite capacity of Earth to supply resources for production as a natural limit to economic growth. A crucial assumption of the DMW is that innovation and technology are expected to facilitate continued economic growth and progress, and provide solutions to short-term environmental problems. DMW assumes humankind is in control of the planet and can manage and bend nature to his will; whereas the NEP emphasises humankind’s (and all of the other species with which we co-exist) complete dependence on Earth’s ecological life support system. Central to the distinction between DMW and NEP are anthropocentric and ecocentric ethics. Ecocentrism The environmental ethic of Indigenous cultures can be starkly contrasted with the dominant mechanistic worldview which drives a predominantly anthropocentric industrialised society. Anthropocentrism separates man from nature and perceives science and technology as tools to enable the domination of nature and the exploitation of natural resources to meet human material needs. Man’s progress towards his chosen goals is considered to be a continuous and righteous path, with science and technology providing solutions to any problems encountered. Humankind’s environmentally destructive behaviour is enforced by the anthropocentic view that the human species exists separately from the surrounding environment, which is seen to exist for the purposes of exploitation. … the anthropocentric doctrine proposes that mankind perceives itself to be the center and ultimate goal of the universe, viewing the environment as a mere function existing for its sole convenience.’ (Pauchant & Fortier 1990, p. 100) Anthropocentric ethics fit within a human-society framework in which the environment is assigned value by humans depending on its functional use. No intrinsic value is recognised in nature. Nature may be protected within this perspective, but only if it is seen as benefiting humans. Topic 6 Environmental ethics 61 Figure 6.1 Dharma the cat says: He who does my bidding is not above me in the hierarchy, Visit Dharma, Bodhi and Siam at http://www.DharmaTheCat.com, winner of the 10 Best On The Web Award An ecocentric ethic is evident within the new environmental paradigm with the recognition of the intrinsic value of nature. The essence of the distinction of anthropocentric from ecocentric ethics is the idea that nature has (or does not have) intrinsic value. Leopold (1949), observing the deterioration of agricultural land in the United States, has been credited with formulating modern ecocentric ethics placing value in the land itself and perceiving a changing role for humans: … from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. (Leopold 1995, p. 143) Leopold emphasised ecological preservation and provided the following preservationist rule by which humans can judge their actions: A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, beauty, and stability of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise. (Leopold 1995, p. 150) Leopold believed conservation systems based on economic motives were inadequate, as most members of a biotic community have no economic value. The cost of a thing is that amount of life which must be exchanged for it. (Henry David Thoreau, US writer, 1817–1862) Ecocentrism represents a fundamental shift in the view of humankind’s position in the biosphere. It decentres the privileged position of humans in the ecosystem, recognising that nature, rather than humankind, is the dominant force. Ecocentrism has been described as a moral awakening analogous to the form of social change that corrected the evils of child labour and human slavery. While there is some support for ecocentrism being the correct basis for an alternative ecological ethic, there is also considerable criticism and rejection of ecocentric principles. Ecocentrism has been questioned on the grounds that: • All species cannot be considered equal, as humans are clearly unique in their capacities to conceptualise and empathise, although this latter point is questioned later in this topic. • Human needs should rank ahead of the needs of other species. Certain fundamental human needs must be satisfied before pursuing the goal of environmental preservation. Often human needs are not adequately considered within an environmentally centred paradigm. • It is not an integrative concept. Ecocentrism wrongly places the welfare of the environment above the welfare of humans and, as it is solely an ecological concept, it fails to integrate ecology with economics. • Moral value cannot be extended to all things natural, although some are willing to extend moral value to animals but not to non-sentient beings which are incapable of experiencing the joys of life. 62 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability This questioning of the relevance of an ecocentric ethic to a modern, post-industrial society has led to the development of alternative ecological views such as eco-humanism. r Reading 6.1 Hinman, L 2013, Contemporary Moral Issues, Diversity and Consensus, Pearson Boston, pp. 440–441. Daoism & the environment Daoism (Taoism) and Confucianism have together shaped the modern Chinese worldview. Both philosophies have explicit and embedded moral systems which provide ethical principles and rules to guide human action. Daoism portrays humankind as being nature rather than being separate to it, rejecting the man versus nature struggle evident in the Western model of economic development. The dao is the path (the way) conforming with the natural forces of heaven and earth; and Daoist ethics rather than focusing on individually correct actions aims for harmony with all things. A central Daoist theme is wuwei which translates as non-coercive action, requiring humankind to yield to rather than resist the forces of nature, as force always creates its own resistance. Rather than being worn down by this resistance the way of the dao requires creative non activity. Daoism opposes authority, oppressive government and coercion, rejecting the structured rule-based ethics of Confucian teachings, instead opting for a more spontaneous and responsive ethic. Daoism rejects the dominance of humankind and superior judgement of the patriarch central to Confucianism. The founder of Daoism, Lao-zi recognising the male dominated society in which he lived, emphasised the female aspect of the dao; being receptive, nourishing and sensitive; and to give life rather than possess it. As one of the earliest gender-neutral religions Daoism teaches the theory of yin yang where male and female energy is complementary, inseparable and equal. The Daoist principle of reversion holds movement to one extreme causes reversal to the other. Lao-zi recommended a path of simplicity, reducing desire and selfishness; ‘emptying oneself (of possessions) can be fulfilling, whereas having abundance is troubling’. Everything that grows eventually declines. With consistency of effort the weak will eventually overcome the strong. In common with Buddhism the principle of reversion suggests an ethical middle path where extreme actions are avoided (excess consumption, brutal honesty, poverty and extreme wealth). Daoism rejects human intervention which is believed to be inevitably destructive. For example Daoists would be sceptical of the benefits of suggested climate change ‘solutions’ such as geo-engineering (using human made technology applied at a global level to cool the climate) or carbon sequestration (capturing carbon as its emitted and injecting it underground), instead opting for non-coercive action (e.g. live simply and stop producing and consuming so much). Confucianism attempts to control greed through strict rules. Whereas Daoism as with Buddhism, perceives desire to be the root cause of suffering; where the ethical path involves the cessation of attachment to desire. A deep recognition of the equality of all things encourages the Daoist to live true to their nature rather than pursue fame and material wealth. Daoist philosophy is evident in the Chinese medical practice of acupuncture which restores harmony by dissolving resistance along energy channels within the body. A political example applying Daoist principles was provided by Mahatma Gandhi who opposed violent action to bring about political change; instead he advocated widespread labour strikes, civil non-violent disobedience and hunger campaigns. Ultimately Gandhi achieved his political objectives. The authoritarian influence of Confucianism is evident as we view China from the West, with the media focusing on human rights abuses and government oppression. However both Confucianism and Daoism aim for the same path, the way of harmony with all things, albeit in what appear to be very different ways. If Daoist principles are correct a harmonious path requires that we practice simplicity, equity, virtue and non-violence; and those that walk this path will eventually prevail. Eco-humanism Between the two extremes of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism lies the eco-humanist perspective that the wellbeing of humankind and the environment are interdependent. Ecology and humanism can be compatible where ecological flourishing includes human flourishing and where human life is improved by wider ecological well-being. (Martell 1994, p. 80) This description of eco-humanism recognises the reciprocal nature of the relationship between humans and the environment and the realisation that there is no real separation between the environment and humankind. Humans, distinct from other forms of living nature, must be informed by a viable culture if they are to flourish. An ecologically sensitive culture is the only type of culture that represents humans in Topic 6 Environmental ethics 63 the way they truly are, that is interconnected to nature. Eco-humanists accept the anthropocentric view that humans have exceptional qualities and that it is natural that humankind prioritises its own wellbeing above the wellbeing of other species. But given general acceptance of the view that human life has value, and that humankind (only) exists within the context provided by the surrounding environment, it makes little sense to value humans but not the environment that provides the context for human existence. In this sense, nature’s intrinsic value is conditional on valuing human life, but it is not conditional on humankind’s instrumental use of nature. r Reading 6.2 Vaughn, L 2010, Doing Ethics, Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues, WW Norton & Co, NY, pp. 498–507. Figure 6.2 Calvin & Hobbes by Bill Waterson (http://members.aol.com/lshauser/calvins.html) Deep ecology Deep ecology can be defined as: … the view that we ought to extend moral consideration to the entire biotic community either: by extending to all living elements of the community the right to live and flourish; or by regarding the biotic community itself as the primary object of moral regard. (Andrew 2000, p. 116) Deep ecology is a philosophical world view whose major tenet is drawn from the science of ecology: the interdependence of all living things in an organically unified order whose balance and stability are necessary conditions for the realisation of the good of its constituent biotic communities (Van DeVeer & Pierce 1998). Central to the thesis of deep ecology is the belief that an environmental crisis is the outcome of anthropocentrism. Ecological consciousness is developed through a learned experience of ourselves and nature. Deep ecology has eight defining principles developed by Arne Naess and George Sessions (Naess 1989) and listed in Table 6.2. 64 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Table 6.2 Principles of deep ecology 1. Well-being & flourishing of human & nonhuman life have value independent of usefulness of nonhuman world for human purposes. 2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realisation of these values. 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness & diversity except to satisfy vital needs. 4. Human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive & rapidly worsening. 5. Flourishing of human & nonhuman life is compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population. 6. Basic economic & technological structures must be changed. 7. Ideological change of appreciating life quality rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. 8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement the necessary changes. (Naess 1989, p. 29) Utilitarianism & virtue ethics Utilitarianism is based on the expected balance of pleasure and pain (net utility) caused by an action. Both Jeremy Bentham and now Peter Singer argue that all sentient beings capable of experiencing pleasure or pain must be included in the utilitarian ethical decision analysis. Singer likens the anthropocentric bias of humankind towards members of its own species (which he calls ‘speciesism’) to sexism and racism. Singer, rather than attributing intrinsic value to nature, is attributing intrinsic value to the pleasure and pain experiences of all beings which inhabit nature. This leaves non-sentient objects (trees, rivers, mountains) with no intrinsic value but rather instrumental value to the satisfaction of humankind. Virtue ethics views the morality of actions against stated virtues such as kindness, compassion, honesty etc. Lisa Newton, author of Ethics and Sustainability (Prentice Hall, 2003), argues that an ethical person would value environmental flourishing and that this in itself represents a required virtue. Although virtue ethics is unavoidably anthropocentric with its focus on human virtue, a flourishing human life requires preservation of the nonhuman natural world as an end in itself. Speciesism The question is not can they reason, nor can they talk, but can they suffer? (Jeremey Bentham, 1748–1832) An important extension of utilitarian thinking concerns the community of beings to which the moral principle is applied. If utility is some combination of pleasure and pain, and the utilitarian goal is to maximise utility, it follows that animals which have the sensory capacity to feel pleasure and pain should be included in the utilitarian decision-making process. The extension of moral consideration to include all sentient life is consistent with the new ecological paradigm which views humans as one of many species living on planet Earth, switching the locus of consideration from human interests to concern for all species and the natural environment. There is no fundamental difference between man and the higher animals in their mental faculties … The lower animals, like man, manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness, and misery. (Charles Darwin, biologist 1809–1882) Topic 6 Environmental ethics 65 Peter Singer is well known for his work on protecting primates. In a recent visit to Australia, he talked about the ethics of primates and explained that the moral behaviour of chimpanzees was built on three principles: 1. caring for their children (parental responsibility) 2. caring for other members of one’s group (community ethic) 3. mutually beneficial behaviour such as when chimps scratch each others’ backs (reciprocity). He described how human moral behaviour is built upon these same three principles, with an important fourth principle: humans are able to put themselves in the place of others affected by our actions. This leads to the ‘golden rule’ of ethics do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Interestingly, there are exceptional accounts of altruistic behaviour by animals, which suggest that they also have the ability to empathise. In October 2004 on the Coramandel Peninsula in New Zealand, lifeguard Rob Howe and three girls were ocean swimming when seven dolphins swam frantically towards them and herded the four swimmers together. The highly agitated dolphins circled the swimmers for 40 minutes splashing the water with their tails. They were not playing. Rob and the girls were later joined by lifeguard Matt Fleet. Rob and Matt both clearly saw the 3 metre great white shark that was stalking the swimmers but was kept at bay by the circling dolphins. There have been other reports of dolphins saving swimmers from sharks from around the world. It appears that dolphins are able to put themselves in the place of others, recognise the risk, and work out a survival solution for members of other species. Another documented account comes from Kenya in 2003, when a lioness cared for an oryx calf orphaned when its mother was eaten by lions. The lioness protected the calf, but eventually became weak from lack of food, fell asleep and the calf was killed by other lions. However, the same lioness adopted four other oryx calves during 2003. Source: http://www.dilbert.com Masson and McCarthy’s (1996) book When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals identifies the complex social lives of animals who feel pain, sorrow, fear, love, loyalty, jealousy, humour and by the accounts above compassion, altruism and courage. We need another and a wiser and perhaps a more mystical concept of animals. We patronise them for their incompleteness, for their tragic fate of having taken form so far below ourselves. And therein we err, and greatly err. In a world older and more complete than ours, they move finished and complete, gifted with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living by voices we shall never hear. They are not brethren, they are not underlings; they are other nations caught with ourselves in the net of life and time, fellow prisoners of the splendour and travail of the earth. (edited quote from Henry Beston, American writer and naturalist, 1888–1968) 66 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability w Film Earthlings – watch at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHA4HNbmDLg. This film provides examples of cruelty towards animals in the pet, entertainment, food, and experimentation industries. The first 10 minutes and last 10 minutes of the film provide an important explanation of the principle of speciesism. Earthlings is difficult viewing, but an important contribution to our understanding of the reality of how animals are treated by throughout society including here in Australia. Contemporary issues – Canned hunting Time to end ‘canned hunting’ of lions: it’s nothing more than a violent recreational activity for wealthy, bored individuals It’s reprehensible that some people still think we have the right to force animals into corners to be killed On Saturday, people around the world in more than 50 countries marched in protest against the merciless killing of white lions in so-called “canned hunts”. The hope is that this united global action will convince South African President Jacob Zuma to put an end to this barbaric and nasty “sport”. Canned hunts are nothing more than pre-packaged slaughters. Lions are confined to fenced areas so that they can easily be cornered, with no chance of escape. Most of them will have been bred in captivity and then taken from their mothers to be hand-reared by the cub-petting industry. When they get too big, they may be drugged before they are released into a “hunting” enclosure. It takes no skill or strength for “trophy” hunters – what a ghastly term! – to track down and kill these beautiful animals. Having been hand-reared by humans, they are accustomed to our presence. Heartbreakingly, it’s not uncommon for animals to trot trustingly toward canned hunters for a handout of food. Because these animals are usually kept in fenced enclosures (ranging in size from just a few square yards to thousands of acres), they never stand a chance of escaping, fighting back or surviving, and many endure prolonged, painful deaths. Canned hunts are big business in Africa, where large private landowners allow hunters to pay thousands of pounds to kill not just white lions but also elephants, lions, leopards, rhinos, giraffes, zebra, hippos, deer, antelope – you name it. Most hunting occurs on private land, where laws that protect wildlife don’t apply or are difficult to enforce. Many of these forprofit ranches operate on a “no-kill, no-pay” policy, so it’s in the owners’ financial interests to ensure that clients get what they came for. Although it may have been part of humans’ survival 100,000 years ago, hunting is now nothing more than a violent form of recreation for wealthy, bored individuals. It has contributed to the extinction of animal species all over the world, including the Tasmanian tiger and the great auk. Who can forget the ear-to-ear smile of serial animal killer Melissa Bachman, which incited outrage around the world from people who could not comprehend how anyone could feel joy, much less pride, from deliberately snuffing out a life? But that’s little consolation to the dead lion and other animals who are just trying to go about their business before being blasted to bits with high-calibre weapons that have scopes and infrared sights. Well into the 21st century, it’s reprehensible that some people still think we have the right to force animals into corners to be shot and killed for a fleeting diversion. How does mounting a glassy-eyed dead head on the wall prove that a person is brave and strong? (Hint: It doesn’t.) Real strength lies in protecting those who are weaker. A lesser-known connection to canned-hunt ranches is that many zoos sell “surplus” animals, even endangered species, to private buyers. They conveniently ignore the fact that many of these animals are then sold to game ranches. Indeed, some zoos bypass an intermediary altogether and openly sell animals directly to auctions or canned-hunt organisers. So the next time you think about visiting a zoo, keep in mind that the animals bred and incarcerated behind those walls may end their short, miserable lives with a bullet through the brain, just to satisfy someone’s sick sense of “amusement”. In any case, no captive-bred lion, white or orange, will ever be released into the wild. The large sums of money wasted on breeding in zoos would be more responsibly directed toward legitimate conservation groups working to end canned hunts and to address other factors contributing to the decline of lions in the wild. http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/time-to-end-canned-hunting-of-lions-its-nothing-more-than-a-violentrecreational- activity-for-wealthy-bored-individuals-9195428.html http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/latenightlive/canned-hunting/5319132 Topic 6 Environmental ethics 67 Animal experimentation Proponents of animal rights seek to abolish the use of animals in science, the farming of animals, and the hunting of animals for sport or commercial purposes. Some animal rights activists rally against factory farming, but are not against free-range farms; and accept the use of animals for medical research, but condemn the use of animals in, for example, cosmetic toxicity tests. Whether you distinguish cosmetic toxicity tests (e.g. sytematically dripping a cosmetic into the eye of a rabbit) from the growing of cancerous tumours on mice represents a critical moral dilemma. Is it morally acceptable for animals to suffer pain if humans think it will benefit the human species? How much pain is acceptable, and for how long? Animals are used in medical research (for example, carcinogenic substances are injected into rats, mice and rabbits); product testing (cosmetics, cleaners, food additives are applied to animals’ skin and eyes); behavioural research (exploring the psychological effect of pain, or recovery from induced major injury); education (dissecting rats or frogs in schools); drug testing (trialling pharmaceutical drugs for side effects); organ donation (transplanting pig livers into humans); and biological research (effects of biological agents on animals). Alternatives to the animal model of experimentation If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. No matter what the nature of the being, the principle of equality requires that its suffering be counted equally with the like suffering of any other being. (Peter Singer) The importance of the above quote is to recognise the relevance of suffering when determining the morality of an action and to establish equality as the starting point for the discussion of the rights of all species. Arguments used to support experimentation on animals are founded on the potential benefit to humans of knowledge gained; and the belief that physical pain felt by the animal is minimised. Those opposed to animal testing emphasise the suffering caused and question the benefits of knowledge gained given biological differences with humans. Opponents also point out that the harm caused is certain and directly observable, whereas the possible benefits from knowledge gained are unknown and unpredictable. Animal experiments are not able to show that drugs are safe or effective for human use. Rather, these experiments are used to decide whether a drug should be tested on people. Some potential drugs are eliminated based on observed effects on animals administered the drug. If a drug passes the animal test it is tested on a small human sample prior to large scale clinical (human) trials. Alternatives to animal testing exist. These alternatives include computer modelling, genetic testing, the use of human tissue, and human volunteer and population studies. English pharmaceutical company Pharmagene Laboratories uses only human tissue and advanced computer technology to test how new drugs affect human genes. Pharmagene believe this research process is more efficient than using live animals, given inherent physiological differences with humans. They point to successful outcomes such as the identification of genetic markers associated with Alzheimer’s, muscular dystrophy and schizophrenia using this technology to support their claims. The use of human skin leftover from surgical procedures can be used to measure the rate at which a chemical is able to penetrate the skin without the need to expose animals to toxic compounds. Microdosing human volunteers can provide information on the safety of an experimental drug and how it is metabolised in the body by administering an extremely small one-time dose that is well below the threshold necessary for any potential pharmacologic effect to take place. Animal experiments can never fully replicate the human condition, whereas studying the outbreaks of epidemics within human populations allows doctors and scientists to discover the root causes of human diseases and disorders so that preventive action can be taken. These types of studies led to the discoveries of the relationship between smoking and cancer and lifestyle, diet and heart disease. 68 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Case study – ethical agriculture r Reading 6.3 Pluhar, E 2010, ‘Meat and morality: Alternatives to factory farming’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, vol. 23, pp. 455–468. a Online discussion question Is vegetarianism a viable option in a modern world with an advanced understanding of nutritional science? References Andrew, J 2000, ‘The accounting craft and the environmental crisis’, Accounting Forum, vol. 24, no. 2, June, p. 204. Catton, WR & Dunlap, RE 1980, ‘A new ecological paradigm for a post-exurberant society’, American Behavioural Scientist, vol. 24, pp. 15–27. Leopold, A 1949, A Sand County Almanac, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Martell, L 1994, Ecology and Society, Polity Press, Cambridge. Moussaieff Masson, J & McCarthy, S 1996, When Elephants Weep, The Emotional Lives of Animals, Vintage, London, pp. 215–223. Naess, Arne 1989, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy, Cambridge University Press. Sessions, G 1991, ‘Ecocentrism and the anthropocentric detour’, ReVISION, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 109–115. Van DeVeer, D & Pierce, C 1998, The Environmental Ethics and Policy Book, 2nd edn, pp. 164–165. 69 Topic 7 Sustainability and environment Indigenous knowledge and sustainability A recurring theme in this unit is most of the knowledge and technology required to achieve something close to sustainability already exists. Renewable energy, zero emission vehicles, permaculture and green architectural design provide solutions to the major problems of unsustainable energy, transport, agricultural and building systems. Additionally population has been successfully controlled in many developed countries using family planning techniques and education, and we recognise a reduction in consumption in economically developed countries is required. This makes sustainability an ethical rather than technological challenge. We could transform to near sustainable lifestyles, but we choose not to. However sustainability is more than efficient resource management and new technology. It integrates moral values, social equity and well being, and cultural preservation. There is something utopian about yearning for an ‘other’ more desirable way of life. Sustainability as a utopian vision is also a spiritual goal, and is treated as such in countries like Bhutan which, informed by their religion strive for the goal of Gross National Happiness. Indigenous knowledge and practices could complete the sustainability puzzle by providing the missing link to spirituality. Native Americans and Australian Aborigines displayed strong spiritual connection to their land informed by rituals, values and Dreaming stories. The idea of land as sacred comes through many accounts of Indigenous life. Nomadic lifestyles did not disconnect the tribe from their land. Rather, essential environmental management principles were followed such as allowing renewable resources to regenerate by moving on to another part of their tribal land, ensuring long-term supply. Natural resources critical to survival were preserved for thousands of years intact for future generations. No need for lengthy debates about climate change and emissions trading schemes. The traditional way of Indigenous life caused minimal carbon emissions. Whereas the biblical story of Genesis has been interpreted as encouragement to exploit the environment as God authorised humans to ‘use, subdue and control every living thing’, Indigenous dreaming encourages environmental preservation. According to the Dreaming, ancestral spirits came to earth and created the natural environment. When finished they turned into trees, rocks and watering holes creating sacred places preserved in Aboriginal culture. Dreaming stories describe creation and identify laws, social protocols, morality and traditional practices providing a spiritual connection and a culture of stewardship of the natural environment. The virtuous path is to follow the ancestors keeping the Dreaming stories alive and looking after country. This spiritual link between people and the land is the role of the Shaman in many traditional cultures. The Shaman’s rich knowledge of plants, animals and climatic change informs their ability to rebalance the tribe’s relationship with the local environment. Equilibrium with nature was their key to healing individuals afflicted with disease using rituals and magic. Sometimes this requires the tribe reducing the amount they were taking from the land and giving something back to balance the natural relationship. Indigenous hunter-gatherers possess ancient wisdom critical to sustainability. Knowledge of the land and how to live within its natural limits, rather than how to transform and exploit it, is knowledge lost to the developed world. Economic man needs to relearn and redesign his relationship with the natural environment. 70 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability A spiritual understanding in the Indigenous tradition of ‘land as sacred’ and ‘caring for country’ could provide the means for sustaining this new relationship for the very long term. (www.echonews.com.au) Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Indigenous knowledge and sustainability Read Sudy Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 7.1 to 7.7 4 Film: Global sustainability 0.5 Online activity: Ecological footprint analysis 0.5 Assignment preparation activity Case study: Rocky Mountain Institute 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 7.1 Lowe, I 2005, A Big Fix, Radical Solutions for Australia’s Environmental Crisis, Black Ink, Melbourne, pp. 19–35. 7.2 Murray, P 2011, The Sustainable Self, Earthscan, London, pp. 172–181. 7.3 Sernau, S 2009, Global Problems: The Search for Equity, Peace, and Sustainability, 2nd edn, Pearson, Boston, pp. 334–348. 7.4 Murray, P 2011, The Sustainable Self, Earthscan, London, pp. 225–230. 7.5 The Prince of Wales, Juniper, T, Skelly, I 2010, Harmony a New Way Of Looking at our World, HarperCollins, London, pp. 1–27. 7.6 Edwards, A 2009, The Sustainability Revolution, New Society Publishers, Canada. 7.7 Lovins, A 2005, ‘More profit with less carbon’, Scientific American, September, pp. 74–82. Film Global sustainability – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk0RvbfwxCo Websites Climate Action – http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/ International Institute for Sustainable Development – http://www.iisd.org/ United Nations Division for Sustainability – http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/ Global Footprint Network – http://www.footprintnetwork.org/ Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 71 Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • compare alternative definitions of sustainability and sustainable development • define the following terms – natural capital, intergenerational equity, intragenerational equity, carrying capacity, fungibility • discuss the relevance of sustainability to climate change • define social equity and link to the ethical dimension of sustainability • describe the five rules of ecological sustainability • discuss the use of ecological footprint analysis to evaluate sustainability. Overview Over the next six topics, we examine sustainability in depth applying the concept to the search for sustainable business (Topics 9 and 10) and a sustainable global society (Topic 12), while social and cultural sustainability are examined in Topic 8, and a range of contemporary sustainability issues are discussed in Topic 11. This topic provides a discussion of the brief history of the sustainability concept, and introduces important sustainability tools and concepts. The evolving language of sustainability is critical to the transition to a global society that is ecologically, socially and economically viable, since it necessitates movement away from short-term opportunistic thinking, to time frames essential to maintaining the health and wellbeing of society and the natural environment over the very long term. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, Agenda 21, the blueprint for action in support of sustainable development for the 21st century, was adopted by the international community. Agenda 21, the declaration of sustainability, was signed by 171 nation states. A nonbinding set of principles was also agreed upon at the Rio de Janeiro conference: the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Rio Declaration outlines the rights and responsibilities of nations as they pursue human development and wellbeing and recognises the development and environment needs of present and future generations. Critical to the transition to sustainability is the transformation of business organisations that are responsible for large-scale consumption of natural resources and pollution of the natural environment. This critical link between sustainability and business is discussed in Topics 9 and 10. Sustainability is a contested concept. There is no universal agreement as to what sustainability means from a theoretical perspective, nor in terms of policy formation or implementation. We discuss alternative perspectives of sustainability, and examine its ethical dimensions and its relevance to the global problem of climate change. Defining sustainability The concepts of sustainability and sustainable development are not new. It is reported that the sustainability concept was applied to agriculture in the eighteenth century, to forestry in the nineteenth century, and to fisheries in the 1950s (Kula 1994). The authors of the Brundtland Report expressed their belief in the importance of the concept: … human survival and well-being could depend on success in elevating sustainable development to a global ethic. (WCED 1987, p. 308) 72 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Numerous definitions of sustainable development are provided in the literature. The most commonly quoted definition of sustainable development made famous by The Brundtland Report provides a needs-based definition linking environmental problems with issues of equity and social justice. Sustainable development, according to Brundtland, is: … development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (WCED 1987, p. 308) The Brundtland Report links environmental degradation to poverty in the Third World, depicted as a vicious cycle feeding on itself, where one cannot be eliminated without eliminating the other. This definition of sustainable development has been heavily criticised. Rather than informing society as to what sustainable development is, the definition states what the goal of sustainable development should be; that is, sustainable development should meet current needs without compromising future needs. This definition does not give any idea as to which critical needs must be met today, or in the future. However, it does emphasise the crucial issue of intragenerational equity (eliminating poverty), which has been elevated to the centre of environmental concerns (United Nations, 1992). The WCED’s definition of sustainable development has also been criticised for its support of continued economic growth, given that growth in both the population and the economy is believed to be a cause rather than a remedy of environmental damage. The concept of needs contained within the WCED’s definition has been interpreted in various ways. One common approach is to relate the needs of future generations to the stock of capital passed on by the current generation. This implies the need for the current generation to at least maintain the stock of capital. Which specific stock of capital must be maintained provides at least the following three interpretations of sustainability: 1. Total capital should be maintained (Solow 1993). Total capital is defined as the total of natural and human-made capital. Substitution of human-made capital for natural capital is accepted. 2. Natural capital should be maintained (Costanza & Daly 1992). Certain classes of natural capital are considered critical to survival and must be included in the bequest package. See the discussion later in this topic concerning the five rules of ecological sustainability. 3. Social capital should be maintained. This includes economic and cultural capital that facilitates the continuing development in the quality of life. Figure 7.1 Chris Madden from the cartoon book The Beast That Ate the Earth, (http://www.inklinepress.com) Ian Lowe is an inspirational leader of the sustainability movement in Australia and your next reading is from his book concerning solutions to unsustainability. Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 73 r Reading 7.1 Lowe, I 2005, A Big Fix, Radical Solutions for Australia’s Environmental Crisis, Black Ink, Melbourne, pp. 19–35. Weak versus strong sustainability The concept of sustainability, according to economist Robert Solow, can be accommodated within economic theory. Solow’s view is that the obligation to provide for the needs of future generations could be met by maintaining the stock of total capital (that is, the natural environment as well as human-made capital) so as to provide the opportunity for future generations to be as well off as the present generation (Solow 1993). Defining sustainability as the maintenance of the stock of total capital has been labelled weak sustainability with the central assumption being the fungibility of resources; that is, natural resources can be substituted with human-made resources. The assumption of fungibility is challenged by proponents of a stronger definition of sustainability. They argue that specific components of natural capital are both irreplaceable and critical to the maintenance of resilient ecological systems that are capable of withstanding shocks of both natural and human origin. Strong sustainability is thus defined as maintaining the stock of natural capital intact for future generations. e Poem by Michael Leunig Poor old lonely mother earth Is very, very sad, She had a bomb put in her heart By people who were mad; She held them and she fed them, She taught them to be free. They put a bomb inside her heart And whispered, ‘C’est la vie’. (Leunig 1999) In your next reading, Murray describes natural systems and natural capital. r Reading 7.2 Murray, P 2011, The Sustainable Self, Earthscan, London, pp. 172–181. Sustainability as a multidimensional objective A recurring theme is the definition of sustainable development as a combination of interdependent ecological, social and economic dimensions. Society depends on the economy to supply its material needs, and the economy is both constrained by and dependent on the supply of ecological goods and services. Human welfare is also influenced directly by ecological health, as nature provides essential resources, recreation, leisure and aesthetic services. A socially unjust world is neither desirable nor sustainable, as social unrest inevitably leads to conflict and violence against both people and the environment. Similarly, if the economy fails to meet basic human needs, natural resources will be harvested to the point of collapse as humankind battles for survival in the short term. 74 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Van den Bergh (1996) describes a three-dimensional definition of sustainable development, which he refers to as ecologically and socially sustainable economic development. The crucial point is that economic development must be both ecologically sustainable and socially sustainable to be consistent with global human needs. This definition of sustainable development is, in essence, an ecologically sensitive but anthropocentric definition. The development process is an economic development process with the goal of satisfying human needs. Sustainable development can be conceptualised in an eco-humanist context (see Topic 6 for discussion of eco-humanist ethics) by recognising the humanist intentions contained within the social and economic components of the concept, but that are still subject to clearly defined ecological constraints. The fourth dimension of culture is often added to the mix of objectives that combine to make up the sustainability objective. The criteria for sustainability are therefore: 1. preservation of the natural environment 2. social welfare for every human, including an equitable intergenerational allocation of resources 3. preservation of cultural diversity 4. economic viability. This is a complex and extremely demanding set of objectives that will not be achieved except by a coordinated global effort. Sustainability is also a multi-level objective that can only be achieved if it is pursued at each level from the individual to the global society. Individuals, households, communities, regions, organisations, nation states and the collective international community must all work towards sustainability for a successful outcome. Clearly, we are not currently on this path of global cooperation. Yet there are numerous models of successful implementation of sustainability objectives in households, by Councils, within business organisations and at the national level throughout the world. In Topics 7–12, we identify many of these successful projects as they show the rest of the world a clear path to a sustainable global society. Reading 7.3 identifies some of the more critical global environmental issues that confront humankind, leading to a brief discussion of a sustainable future. r Reading 7.3 Sernau, S 2009, Global Problems: The Search for Equity, Peace, and Sustainability, 2nd edn, Pearson, Boston, pp. 334–348. Sustainability and social equity The Brundtland Report (WCED 1987) is credited with elevating the sustainable development objective to its position as the central issue for the global community. Brundtland emphasised that environmental damage from global consumption falls most severely on the world’s poorest people, thus placing excessive pressure on the natural resource base as the world’s poor struggle for daily survival. This causes problems such as desertification, deforestation, overfishing, water scarcity, loss of biodiversity. Given the interdependence between environmental and developmental issues, Brundtland concluded that sustainable development is impossible while poverty and massive social injustices persist. Brundtland’s definition of sustainable development enshrines the principles of intragenerational equity and intergenerational equity. The principle of intergenerational equity requires that the present generation maintain or improve the health, diversity and productive capacity of the environment to be inherited by future generations. Whether the needs of future generations are met by sustaining the stock of natural capital or whether human-made capital can be substituted for natural capital is at the centre of the sustainability debate. Intragenerational equity generally refers to the elimination of poverty throughout the world. Natural resources need to be used efficiently to meet the needs of an expanding population. In social terms, efficiency means resources are used where they are needed, that is there is a just distribution of resources within society. Intragenerational equity requires the redistribution of wealth and opportunities to eliminate Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 75 poverty, recognising the moral necessity to provide all humankind with an equitable share of the world’s wealth and opportunities, as well as the cycle linking poverty with environmental degradation. Intragenerational equity reflects the social imperative to provide people in Third World countries with the necessary resources to enable them to achieve the ecological imperative of halting the vicious cycle of environmental degradation, which is inextricably linked to their impoverished circumstances which drives them to over exploit natural resources to avoid starvation. The necessary resources, which include money, technology, knowledge and basic needs such as food, clothing and medicines, can be supplied by direct investment or transfers of aid. Direct investment in environmental conservation, although it has grown rapidly in recent times, has failed to stop resource over-exploitation given persistent, dire poverty. Designing mechanisms to eliminate Third World poverty is an immense challenge and solutions have proved elusive. However, an effective approach to fighting poverty has been developed drawing on the tools on business to achieve social objectives. Examples are social entrepreneurship and fair trade. This business model of poverty alleviation is explored in Topics 10 and 11. Figure 7.2 Chris Madden from the cartoon book The Beast That Ate the Earth (http://www.inklinepress.com) Film Global sustainability – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk0RvbfwxCo This film provides an introduction to the role of business corporations in the transition to global sustainability. Ecological sustainability rules Five rules of compliance if economic development is to be ecologically sustainable are listed in Table 7.1. Table 7.1 Five rules of ecological sustainability 1. Critical natural capital is maintained intact. 2. Usage of renewable resources not to exceed the natural rate of regeneration. 3. Usage of non-renewable resources limited to the rate of creation of renewable substitutes. 4. Discharge of waste into the ecosystem limited to the rate of assimilation. 5. Human population limited to the carrying capacity of the planet. Source: Daly 1990; Costanza & Daly 1992 76 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Critical natural capital includes natural resources critical to life on earth, such as the ozone layer, a critical mass of trees, and biological diversity. Stocks of these resources should not be reduced in a sustainable world. These resources need to be passed to the next generation intact so as to meet our intergenerational obligation not to compromise the needs of future generations. The second rule of ecological sustainability requires renewable resources such as fishing stocks and forest farm timber to be harvested at sustainable levels, which is at or below the natural rate of renewal. Sustainable yields are difficult to calculate. It would be desirable to harvest such resources cautiously to avoid the risk of overharvesting, which appears to be contrary to the short-term incentives contained within free market economic systems. The earth’s ability to process waste is a renewable service provided by nature, and waste levels are kept at a level equal to or below the natural rate of assimilation. The maintenance of non-renewable natural resources (e.g. minerals, oil and natural gas deposits) at sustainable levels is problematic as the rate of creation of renewable substitutes (e.g. solar energy) is difficult to estimate. A primary goal is to switch consumption from non-renewable to renewable resources, as longterm reliance on non-renewables is inconsistent with the premise of sustainable development. The final rule of ecological sustainability listed in Table 7.1 requires the scale of human activity to be limited to the earth’s capacity. Major causes of pollution and natural resource depletion are exponential growth in the human population and unsustainable levels of consumption in affluent countries. Overpopulation and excess consumption must be reversed if the earth is to sustain human activity in the long term. Contemporary issues – ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’ In 1968, Garrett Hardin wrote a famous article ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’. His conclusion was ‘The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality’. Hardin believed knowledge would not stop overpopulation as it required a fundamental change in values, where we sacrifice our freedom to breed. Forty years later, countries like Australia prove Hardin correct. Our values have changed. While true gender equality is not yet reality, women are pursuing rewarding careers, in some cases foregoing or restricting parenthood. The attraction and entrapment of large mortgages and two incomes also encourage smaller families. Family planning education has provided the tools to achieve negative population growth. Hardin’s argument was based on a simple example. Imagine a pasture available to all farmers. Each farmer can increase their individual wealth by increasing the number of animals they graze on the common pasture. Once the pasture reaches its carrying capacity, there will be a negative cost from overgrazing, but this negative cost is shared by all farmers that use the commons. A short-term economic incentive exists for each farmer to keep increasing the size of their herd above the natural carrying capacity as the revenue earned from grazing an extra animal is greater than the shared cost of overgrazing. The same argument applies to pollution. An economically ‘rational’ business in the short term knows their ‘share of the cost of the wastes discharged into the commons is less than the costs of purifying the wastes before releasing them’. The inevitable result of this ‘rational’ behaviour is ecological, social and economic collapse. The lesson from the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ is that free market economic systems have a built in self-destruct mechanism. The economy is programmed to exhaust natural resources to the point of collapse. Effective government is required to protect natural systems and the economically disempowered from the excesses of corporate behaviour. As consumers, we need to recognise our complicity in the tragedy and downsize to sustainable levels of consumption. (www. echonews.com.au) Ecological footprints Ecological footprint analysis is a powerful sustainability tool that takes account of the limited amount of productive space on the earth to sustain life, which is estimated at 1.8 global hectares per person (Global Footprint Network 2009). It calculates the human demand on this area required to meet humankind’s consumption of economic goods and services. Comparing consumption to land availability shows the extent to which most people in economically developed nations are living beyond the productive capacity of the earth. Living beyond the planet’s productive capability demonstrates the level of unsustainability of high consumption Western lifestyles, as well as the inequity of some people (and entire nations) consuming many times more than an equal share of the earth’s productive capacity. Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 77 The ecological footprint is a single index measuring human impact on the earth. Australia’s Ecological Footprint in the Living Planet Report 2010 was 6.8 global hectares per person, which is almost four times the global availability of productive land. China’s footprint is 2.2 global hectares. The most significant factor contributing to Australia’s ecological footprint is carbon emissions from fossil fuels, which account for about half of our total footprint. If everyone on the planet lived like Australians do, we would need more than four planet Earths to support us. This excess consumption is supported in two ways: 1. Many humans are forced to live in impoverished circumstances as they fight for survival, drawing on a fraction of one hectare to support their minimal consumption lifestyles. 2. Members of the current generation are liquidating earth’s resources, thereby reducing and degrading natural capital which should morally be maintained for future generations. This liquidation of earth’s natural resources reduces options available to future generations. There are many websites which provide ecological footprint calculators which enable you to estimate the environmental impact of your lifestyle. For example, try any of these: www.epa.vic.gov.au/ecologicalfootprint www.myfootprint.org www.acfonline.org.au/custom_greenhome/calculator www.wwf.org.au/footprint/calculator Figure 7.3 Chris Madden from the cartoon book The Beast That Ate The Earth (http://www.inklinepress.com) Murray discusses ecological footprints in your next reading. There are many different methods for calculating ecological and carbon footprints, so you will find that quoted figures from different sources will vary. However, the general trends and overwhelming message of unsustainability and its causes is very clear. r Reading 7.4 Murray, P 2011, The Sustainable Self, Earthscan, London, pp. 227–230. 78 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability a Activity – Environmental footprint analysis Go to http://www.wwf.org.au/our_work/people_and_the_environment/human_footprint/ footprint_calculator/ and calculate your own personal ecological footprint. Compare the composition of your personal footprint and compare it to the Australian average provided by WWF at http://www.wwf.org.au/our_work/people_and_the_environment/ human_footprint/ecological_footprint/ Identify actual changes you can (will?) make to your lifestyle which will reduce your footprint. In your next reading the authors provide a vision of sustainability with both depth and clarity. Prince Charles et al. connect a multiplicity of ideas and express the urgency of changing the way we think as well as the way we live, by drawing on traditional knowledge, which synthesise with science to define a path to sustainability. r Reading 7.5 The Prince of Wales, Juniper, T, Skelly, I 2010, Harmony a New Way Of Looking at our World, Harper Collins, London, pp. 1–27. Climate change and carbon management A critical global environmental issue confronting humankind is anthropogenic climate change. There is overwhelming evidence acknowledged within the scientific community that the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and agriculture are contributing to global warming. These actions represent humankind’s contribution to this problem. Increasing global temperatures, rising sea levels, increased incidence and severity of extreme weather events are climate change impacts already being experienced and expected to worsen significantly within 10 to 20 year timeframes. One response has been to develop a range of carbon management strategies for reducing carbon emissions. The standard approach to carbon management at the corporate level is summarised as follows: 1. measure carbon emissions 2. implement energy efficiency schemes to reduce energy consumption 3. switch to renewable sources of energy 4. purchase carbon emissions permits (if required and when available) 5. offset any remaining carbon emissions using a verified carbon offset scheme. This process is examined in depth in MNG10253 Sustainable Business Management. Contemporary issues – Carbon footprint of a Google search Google’s carbon footprint exposed. 14 January 2009 – Search engines such as Google generate massive CO2 emissions, shows a study by US physicist Alex Wissner-Gross. Describing his research in the Sunday Times, the Harvard academic said that despite Google’s secrecy over its carbon footprint, he had calculated on the basis of publicly available information that each Google search generates an estimated 5–10 grams of CO2. The newspaper reported that two Google searches releasing 7g of CO2 were almost the equivalent of boiling a kettle for a cup of tea. http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article5489134.ece Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 79 Conclusion Sustainability is a bit like a jigsaw puzzle. Many pieces are needed to achieve the goals of social wellbeing for everyone, and ecological and cultural preservation, whilst achieving long-term economic viability. In many ways, a vision for a sustainable global society is utopian. The idea of eliminating poverty, establishing ethical and sustainable livelihoods for every worker, developing and producing sustainable technologies, achieving equity within and between generations and towards other species, living in peace, building a green economy, reducing consumption in affluent countries, controlling population, and I could go on, seems more fantasy than a realistic goal. But, as you’ll see in Topic 8, much if not all of the knowledge required to be near sustainable already exists, but we choose not to use it, or at least are not prepared to pay for it. We even know how to control population growth, as many developed countries have used a combination of education, equal opportunity and birth control techniques to reduce the natural rate of population growth to zero. This suggests a missing piece of the sustainability puzzle is the necessary change in values which places the transition to sustainability ahead of goals such as short-term profit maximisation or binge consumption of resources, hence our search for an ethical framework consistent with achieving global sustainability. This search continues through to Topic 12. a Activity – Sustainability puzzle The concept of sustainability can be likened to a diverse, multidimensional puzzle. From the following list, or from your own ideas, select 10 critical pieces of the sustainability puzzle and rank them from 1 (most important) to 10 (less important). You can make your list more compelling by adding extra words or restating any of these ideas as positive or negative contributing factors to sustainability. Post your list on the online discussion forums. 1. Biodiversity 2. Ecosystems 3. Endangered species 4. Education 5. Interconnected systems 6. Pollution 7. Natural resource depletion 8. Poverty 9. Freedom 10. Indigenous knowledge 11. Long term profit 12. People 13. Social justice 14. Law and order 15. Free markets 16. Economies of scale 17. Employment creation 80 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability 18. Quality of life 19. Production efficiency 20. Fair trade 21. Consumerism 22. Polluter pays principle 23. Cultural diversity 24. Human rights 25. Leadership 26. Climate change 27. Governance 28. Design and innovation. 29. Green technology 30. Values and beliefs. Your next reading identifies seven themes critical to sustainability and discusses the pathway to a sustainable future. r Reading 7.6 Edwards, A 2009, The Sustainability Revolution, New Society Publishers, Canada, pp. 128–140. Case study – Rocky Mountain Institute http://www.rmi.org/ At Rocky Mountain Institute we are practitioners, not theorists. We do solutions, not problems. We do transformation, not incrementalism. Amory Lovins, Co-founder, Chairman and Chief Scientist Lovins co-authored the classic Natural Capitalism text discussed in detail in Topic 9. RMI works on sustainability innovation in three main areas – transport, energy and buildings. It is recommended that you go to RMI’s online library and read articles relevant to your interests and assessment. Here is one interesting article that very much describes the philosophy of Amory and RMI : r Reading 7.7 Lovins, A 2005, ‘More profit with less carbon’, Scientific American, September, pp. 74–82. Topic 7 Sustainability and environment 81 References Beder, S 1997, Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism, Scribe Publications, Melbourne. Costanza, R & Daly, H 1992, ‘Natural capital and sustainable development’, Conservation Biology, vol. 1, March, pp. 37–46. Daly, H 1990, ‘Toward some operational principles of sustainable development’, Ecological Economics, no. 2, pp. 2–6. Hardin, G 1968, ‘The tragedy of the commons’, Science, no. 162, pp. 1243–1248. Heyes, A & Liston-Heyes, C 1995, ‘Sustainable resource use: The search for meaning’, Energy Policy, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 1–3. Kula, E 1994, Economics of Natural Resources, the Environment and Policies, 2nd edn, Chapman & Hall, London. Pezzey, J 1992, ‘Sustainability: An interdisciplinary guide’, Environmental Values, no. 1, pp. 321–362. Rees, W 1990, ‘The ecology of sustainable development’, The Ecologist, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 18–23. Solow, R 1993, ‘Sustainability: an economist’s perspective’, Economics of the Environment: Selected Readings, RAN Dorfman (ed.), WW Norton, New York. United Nations 1992, Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, United Nations, New York. Van den Bergh, J 1996, Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. WCED 1987, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press. Worster, D 1995, ‘The shaky ground of sustainability’ in G Sessions (ed.), Deep Ecology for the Twenty-First Century, Shambhala, Boston. Yencken, D & Wilkinson, D 2000, Resetting the Compass, Australia’s Journey Towards Sustainability, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. SOC10236 Applied E 82 thics and Sustainability 83 Topic 8 Social and cultural sustainability Zapatistas in Chiapas, Mexico The Zapatista movement in Mexico provides an example of peasants losing patience with their national government and implementing their own solutions to eliminate poverty throughout their communities. After an initial short and violent confrontation with the Mexican Army the Zapatistas implemented non-violent grassroots action in the tradition espoused by Mahatma Ghandi, including the creation of autonomous zones that operate without official government approval. When the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect in the early morning hours of 1 January 1994, rebels of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation attacked four major towns in the Mexican state of Chiapas. The Mexican government deployed 17,000 troops to fight the rebel army, which lacked the numbers and equipment to engage in a prolonged military confrontation. Although led by middle class, educated insurgents from outside the region, the rebels were made up largely of Indigenous Americans from Chiapas. Their actions reflected their disillusion with the failure of the government to fulfil the promises of the Revolution of 1910. In spite of the promise of land redistribution and equality for all, the Indians still lived in a state of servitude providing menial labour to rich landowners. The initial fighting lasted twelve days and there has been little or no armed response by the Zapatistas since January 12, 1994. The Zapatistas have cultivated a grassroots democracy in the Zapatista-controlled territories with the primary goal of empowering the indigenous population. They have established schools, clinics, business cooperatives, and a decentralised government structure. In order to deter military and paramilitary incursions, international human rights observers have maintained a constant presence in many of the autonomous communities over the last ten years. The schools and clinics are funded, for the most part, by donors worldwide. Beyond gaining material support, the Zapatistas have also won over the hearts and minds of many internationals through the use of poetry, Internet communiqués, and other creative forms of mass communication. 84 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Zapatistas in Chiapas Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings 8.1 to 8.4 4 Film: Learning from Ladakh 0.5 Online activity: Sustainability Street 0.5 Assignment preparation activity Case study: Easter Island 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 8.1 Norberg-Hodge, H 2000, Ancient Futures, Rider, London. 8.2 Cairns Jr, J 2004, ‘Sustainability ethics: Tale of two cultures’, Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics, May, pp. 39–43. 8.3 Kuecker, G 2007, ‘The perfect storm: Catastrophic collapse in the 21st century’, The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 1–13. 8.4 Morrow, R 1996, Earth User’s Guide to Permaculture, Kangaroo Press, Sydney. Websites International Society for Ecology & Culture – http://www.isec.org.uk Sustainability Street – http://www.sustainabilitystreet.org.au Film Ancient Futures, Living in Ladakh – Extracts of this film are available on the recorded lecture via the SCU Mediasite. Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • explain the importance of social identity to sustainability • describe the tension which exists between Western style economic development and cultural diversity • discuss the link between culture and sustainability • describe permaculture and its relevance to building sustainable communities. Topic 8 Social and cultural sustainability 85 Overview This topic focuses on the social and cultural dimensions of sustainability, which include all-round social wellbeing and maintaining cultural diversity throughout the world. The urgent need to change unsustainable systems is explored using the Easter Island collapse scenario and a case study of Ladakh which examines tension between Western economic development and social and cultural objectives. Social identity and sustainability Research into the social aspects of sustainability has recognised the importance of ‘social identity’; that is, the need to identify with a community and its local environment to encourage people to preserve the local ecosystems on which their wellbeing depends. In this context, identity is: … a well established social fabric that allows people to recognise themselves as a group or as a community sharing prototypical features and having achieved certain levels of social cohesion. (Pol 2002, p. 9) Integral to this notion of social identity and its link to sustainability is the creation of social networks built on cooperation and mutual support as an essential step toward sustainability. A belief that individual survival strategies are not consistent with the notion of sustainability necessitates the need for socially diverse and cohesive networks to enable long-term survival. Sustainable community implies a mutually supporting network of members cohesively working toward sustainability. This provides an essential sense of attachment to local surroundings increasing individual responsibility to care for and preserve local ecosystems. Examples include the planning, design and implementation of local community spaces recognising local geography, climate, history, culture and social integration; preserving local ecosystems that support wildlife habitat, biodiversity and natural beauty; and preserving and restoring historic sites and buildings. The development of a strong social identity is consistent with the underlying principle of communitarian ethics, which rejects ethical egoism in favour of consideration of consequences for the wellbeing of other members of the communities to which we belong. Communitarian ethics de-emphasises individual rights and prioritises social responsibility. Local Landcare environmental groups, neighbourhood watch and feminists represent groups that identify with communitarian ethics. Figure 8.1 Dilbert (http://www.dilbert.com) The communitarian vision focuses on people and their quality of life upholding values of stewardship, community partnership, equity, social justices, social-cultural identity and spiritual development; with a transfer of political decision-making authority from corporate to community level. This transfer is based on the belief that community values (equity, social justice, co-operative partnership, stewardship, communal identity) rather than corporate objectives (profit, sales growth, wealth maximisation, competitive advantage, creation of consumer demand) are consistent with the objective of sustainability. 86 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Figure 8.2 Chris Madden from the cartoon book The Beast That Ate the Earth (http://www.inklinepress.com) Social case for sustainability Within the business sustainability literature, the ‘business case’ for sustainability is well established. The idea is that business can implement sustainability and make more profit as a result. In support of this business case are thriving socially responsible business organisations. However, the flaw in this observation is that socially responsible business is still a rarity. These organisations stand out to consumers who prefer to buy products from organisations that minimise negative social and environmental impacts. These organisations are benefiting from a limited window of opportunity, which is referred to as the ‘first-mover advantage’. Source: http://www.dilbert.com Symons (2011) developed a model of the ‘social case for business sustainability’ identifying reasons why business organisations need to become sustainable based on improvements in stakeholder wellbeing. The purpose of Symons’ model was to provide a framework for identifying changes in stakeholder wellbeing as a result of sustainability implementation within business. This research suggests that stakeholder wellbeing is subject to numerous social impacts caused by business activities. The 10 categories of social impact identified by Symons are: 1. Governance 2. Corporate culture 3. Human rights 4. Regulation 5. Human resource management 6. Knowledge management 7. Health & safety 8. Product design & built environment 9. Philanthropy & responsibility 10. Equity & ethics. Topic 8 Social and cultural sustainability 87 Human resources management is critical to sustainability implementation that may impact on occupational health and safety, industrial relations, training and education programs, leadership or change in corporate culture. The sustainability paradigm shift leads to new organisational knowledge and technologies, and learning processes that will impact on employees. New product designs will lead to more choice, changed working conditions in factories, and possibly increased prices, all of which could have social impacts on consumers and employees. Business organisations have direct social impacts through their charitable and philanthropic activities. Organisations impact human rights particularly when they operate internationally under different labour and environmental standards. An organisation’s physical environment is another critical social impact factor as it directly influences employee health and wellbeing. These potential social impacts illustrate the depth of social issues relevant to business. The sustainability movement has had some success in identifying the environmental threat of continuing with business-asusual; however, social impacts are poorly accounted for in business decision-making processes. Sustainability and culture In this section, we explore a series of cases from economically developing countries which establish a link between culture and sustainability. The first case looks at the displacement of the traditional Ladahki culture with Western-style economic development. The reading provided comes from Helana Norberg-Hodge’s book Ancient Futures, Learning from Ladakh. Helana is the Director of ISEC (International Society for Ecology & Culture). Her main thesis is that the rest of the world, which is pursuing an economic growth path, can learn from the experience in Ladakh. It is highly recommend that you obtain a copy of the film by the same name, which is available from the Southern Cross University Library. Reading 8.1 explains the hoax of economic development that Norberg-Hodge has observed directly in Ladakh, a small Asian country in the Himalaya. She identifies the tragedy of a sustainable traditional culture being destroyed as a community is absorbed into the global economy. Helana’s inspirational work was recognised when she was awarded the Right Livelihood award, commonly referred to as the Alternative Nobel Prize. r Reading 8.1 Norberg-Hodge, H 2000, Chapter 16, The development hoax, Ancient Futures, pp. 141–156. w Film Ancient Futures, Living in Ladakh – Extracts of this film are available on the recorded lecture via the SCU Mediasite. Collapse scenarios The second case compares the struggle for survival on two comparable Pacific islands, Easter Island and Tikopia. The case of Easter Island was discussed briefly in the film Home, which was the film included in Week 1. The theory of collapse on Easter Island is based on the belief that the inhabitants, the ‘Rapa Nui’, over-harvested trees on the island, and also consumed large quantities of resources to produce and transport enormous carved stone statues. The result was soil erosion, and they could no longer make wooden canoes to replace their existing fleet as they became worn, and therefore were unable to catch fish, which were an essential component of their diet. Resource wars and population collapse were inevitable. 88 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Cairns’ Reading 8.2 contrasts Easter Island with Tikopia, which was a similar island in size, location and time period in which the inhabitants were confronted with critical survival decisions. The Tikopians exceeded their island’s carrying capacity, but stabilised their population using infanticide, abortion and birth control laws, and changed their farming methods. As with Norberg-Hodge’s work, Cairns believes that the struggle to achieve sustainability on these small island communities provides valuable lessons for humankind which faces the same survival issues but on a global scale. r Reading 8.2 Cairns Jr, J 2004, ‘Sustainability ethics: Tale of two cultures’, Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics, May, pp. 39–43. Cairns’ message is that sustainability is not inevitable. Furthermore, there is strength in diversity of culture. Hence, a component of sustainability is to preserve cultures, particularly ancient indigenous cultures that have experienced long periods of survival. Globalisation is creating a single social system rooted in an ethic of consumerism and economic growth. Easter Island is a possible indicator of what will happen on a larger global scale, unless we change course and live within the carrying capacity of the planet. Glen Kuecker, in his paper ‘The Perfect Storm: Catastrophic Collapse in the 21st Century’, is critical of how we frame the sustainability debate, and particularly of lame government attempts to make it look like they’re addressing the problem. He uses the climate change debate as an example. The problem of climate change has been framed as a collapse scenario which will take place in the future unless we make some incremental changes some time soon. Unfortunately, climate change is current reality. Mega catastrophes such as global warming, genocide, mass starvation, pandemics, firestorms, and increased rates of natural disaster are seen by many as events unlikely to affect them. This denial fails to provide for the necessary response to these disasters when they occur. According to Kuecker, the perfect storm of catastrophic collapse is created by the intersection of these many potential disaster scenarios, representing a structural crisis where collapse cannot be avoided by altering course, as catastrophic collapse is already in progress. His message is we need to address the fundamental causes of collapse or survival is unfeasible. r Reading 8.3 Kuecker, G 2007, ‘The perfect storm: Catastrophic collapse in the 21st century’, The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 1–13. e Strange that you should ask … Nasrudin climbed into someone’s kitchen garden and started filling a sack with everything that he could lay his hands on. A gardener saw him and came running. ‘What are you doing here?’ ‘I was blown here by a high wind.’ ‘And who uprooted the vegetables?’ ‘I caught hold of them to stop myself being swept along.’ ‘And how does it come that there are vegetables in that sack?’ ‘That is just what I was wondering about when you interrupted me.’ (Shah 1983, p. 27) Topic 8 Social and cultural sustainability 89 Permaculture Permaculture involves the building of sustainable living systems. The permaculture movement was founded by Australian Bill Mollison, and is now practised throughout the world. It can be entered into on any scale, from an upstairs city apartment to a large scale agricultural property or community. The next reading introduces the principles and practices of permaculture. This reading also discusses social permaculture, which you will find to be a pragmatic extension of Bookchin’s social ecology. A discussion of bioregions leads to the discussion of permaculture in suburban areas. r Reading 8.4 Morrow, R 1996, Earth User’s Guide to Permaculture, Kangaroo Press, Sydney, pp. 9–18 and pp. 135–141. e The summer palace Make a little garden in your pocket. Plant your cuffs with radishes and rocket. Let a passion fruit crawl up your thigh. Grow some oregano in your fly. Make a steamy compost of your fears. Trickle irrigate your life with tears. Let your troubled mind become a trellis. Turn your heart into a summer palace. (Leunig 1999) a Online activity – Sustainable communities Go to http://www.sustainabilitystreet.org.au/ and review the Vox Bandicoot approach to local community based sustainability projects, including their environmental fingerprint tool. Identify local environmental and social clubs and networks which operate in your own community. Outline a sustainability project suitable for your community or campus. Make it happen! Concluding comments This topic has focused on the link between sustainability and social and cultural impacts. Business organisations are responsible for numerous social impacts in the normal course of business. Some are positive, such as job creation and production of essential goods and services, yet there are many negative impacts which are often unaccounted for. One of the goals of sustainability is to preserve cultural diversity. The case studies featured in this topic show the danger of the global community becoming one global consumer monoculture as the risk of collapse is extremely high. Within the many different cultures is traditional survival knowledge that must be maintained and understood to inform the transition of modern industrial society to a sustainable global society. 90 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability References Bookchin, M 1990, The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism, Black Rose Books, New York. Hartmann, 1999, The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight, Bantam, Sydney, pp. 274–292. Leunig, M 1999, Goatperson and other tales, Penguin, Melbourne. Morrow, R 1996, Earth User’s Guide to Permamculture, Kangaroo Press, Sydney. Shah, I 1983, The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mulla Nasrudin, Octagon Press, London. Symons, C 2011, Elevating the Social Case, Honours Dissertation, Southern Cross University. Williams, S 1998, ‘Holism, reductionism and communitarian visions’, Social Alternatives, vol. 17, no. 1, January. 91 Topic 9 Economic sustainability Corporate social responsibility In an article in The Economist ‘Just good business’ (Jan 19, 2008) it was acknowledged that corporate social responsibility (CSR) is now a mainstream business activity. Large companies are producing glossy CSR and Sustainability reports which together with their websites are promoting their good behaviour to the rest of the world. Examples of good corporate behaviour include a vast array of environmental activities, local community investment, charitable donations and poverty alleviation programs. This type of business is booming! Universities are also jumping on board with many new courses in CSR. Graduate surveys are showing that corporate reputation including CSR is now a significant factor when selecting suitable employment. Is this a reflection of an evolved business conscience? No doubt some of the CSR growth is in direct response to the fallout from large scale corporate scandals in recent times which have undermined public trust in the corporate sector. It’s often forgotten but corporations exist for the public good. Corporations are also increasingly aware of consumer watchdogs and environmental groups that report their misbehaviour. Little can they afford a drop in sales from yet another piece of bad publicity beamed out to the global marketplace. The Economist article made some interesting points about CSR. It acknowledged that most of the activity is defensive, that is in response to negative publicity and public mistrust, and a strategy for managing risk. No hint of a conscience here, just trying to protect market share. Other companies recognise that it makes strategic sense to embed CSR throughout the corporation’s activities so that social and environmental impacts are considered as a routine part of corporate decision making. But in reality CSR is still an add-on. But what impressed me in this article was the final statement – Done well, though, (CSR) is not some separate activity that companies do on the side, a corner of corporate life reserved for virtue: it is just good business. The authors recognise the obvious. Business has no long term future if it destroys its ecological life support system and the social fabric of the society that it exists to serve. We’ve been doing business in this destructive manner for 200 years as we are stuck in the first industrial revolution. It’s the ‘take-make-waste’ system of production. We mine enormous volumes of natural resources, inefficiently turn them into economic goods and services with a high proportion of waste and pollution. After a short economic life the product is thrown into a landfill or maybe the ocean. CSR is about finding our way to the second industrial revolution, the environmentally and socially sustainable business revolution. Actually it’s already begun. (www.echonews.com.au) 92 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Corporate social responsibility Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 9.1 to 9.6 4.5 Film: Biomimicry 0.5 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Case study: Guitang Sugar in Guangxi 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 9.1 DesJardins, JR 2007, Chapter 1 – The coming age of sustainable business, Business, Ethics, and the Environment: Imagining a Sustainable Future, pp. 1–15. 9.2 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 133–137. 9.3 Benyus, J 1997, Biomimicry, Innovation Inspired by Nature, Harper, New York, pp. 253–277. 9.4 Mueller, T 2008, ‘Biomimetics: Design by Nature’, National Geographic, vol. 213, no. 4, pp. 68–83. 9.5 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 143–147. 9.6 Lovins, A & Lovins, LH et al. 1999, ‘Road map for natural capitalism’, Harvard Business Review, May– June, pp. 145–158. Websites Sustainable economics – http://www.worldwatch.org/ World Business Council for Sustainable Development – http://www.wbcsd.org Steady state economics – http://www.steadystate.org/ Industrial ecology – http://www.is4ie.org/ Biomimicry Institute – http://www.biomimicryinstitute.org/ Rocky Mountain Institute – http://www.rmi.org/ Free download of the entire book Natural Capitalism by Hawken, Lovins & Hunter-Lovins at http://www. natcap.org/sitepages/pid20.php The Next Industrial Revolution – https://vimeo.com/20372160 Topic 9 Economic sustainability 93 c Film Biomimicry, David Suzuki, The Nature of Things http://live.scu.edu.au/Mediasite/Play/7b9cb175f9be45f0855537b637d113071d (film provided on SCU Mediasite) Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • critique economic capitalism • explain the principles of natural capitalism • describe biomimicry and its application to business • define the concept of industrial ecology • provide examples of the use of biomimicry for industrial design. Overview This topic begins with a critique of market capitalism. Identified problems with the dominant global economic system focused on growth at any cost, lead to the exploration of new forms of economics that offer the possibility of transition to a sustainable global society. Industrial ecology and natural capitalism are fundamentally different economic systems; and we explore the major assumptions and characteristics of each of these new economic models. Underpinning sustainable economics is the new design principle of biomimicry, which uses natural systems as inspiration for redesigning economic production systems. This idea is explored both in this topic and in Topic 10, as well as in this week’s film, which is a special feature from David Suzuki’s The Nature of Things TV series. Critique of capitalism The Western form of market economics (neoclassical economics) evolved from the writings of moral philosopher Adam Smith. Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776) enunciated five principles of a progressive economic framework: 1. the pursuit of self-interest 2. the division of labour (where workers specialise on specific tasks) 3. free trade 4. free access to information 5. the avoidance of large, monopolistic players. Neoclassical economics is a brand of economics based on the philosophy of liberalism. The liberal economic democratic conception pictures a world of equal individuals, free to act (liberal) and to express choice through actions in markets (economic) and action in the political arena (democratic). The role of the economy is to produce goods and services to meet the needs of individual consumers. Economic growth is a crucial element of liberal economic systems, where the focus is on production rather than distribution. Inequalities in the distribution of wealth are rationalised by growth in aggregate material wealth (Gross Domestic Product), which is perceived to be a clear indicator of sound economic management, and perverse notions such as trickle down, which is the belief that as wealthier consumers spend, economic benefits trickle down to the poor. 94 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability There are many ethical issues relating to this dominant form of liberal economics which is profoundly influenced by Smith’s 1776 thesis. Some ethical questions raised include: • Why continue the obsessive pursuit of economic growth in a world that has limited resources and limited capacity to absorb the negative impacts (pollution) of economic activity? Why is attention not focused on limiting consumption to sustainable levels? • When will social and environmental impacts of economic production be included in economic decision making, rather than being treated as costs external to the business entity (i.e. as externalities)? • How will the inequitable distribution of resources and wealth be redistributed to address poverty, starvation, disease, malnutrition and environmental degradation? • Why is the liberal economic model being imposed on communities throughout the world, regardless of their preferences? Figure 9.1 Chris Madden from the cartoon book The Beast That Ate the Earth, http://www.inklinepress.com Adam Smith’s first principle of self-interest reveals capitalism as a form of ethical egoism where the pursuit of self-interest is believed to advance the good of society as a whole, by leading the economy to optimal efficiency. However, the social desirability of an economy driven by self-interest is questioned by numerous examples distinguishing economic efficiency from a socially optimal and equitable distribution of wealth and opportunity. Income distribution is not optimal when poverty exists. Efficiency implies that resources are distributed where needed. Social efficiency therefore requires income transfers to the poor who need to consume essential goods and services. A second example of the inefficiency of self-interest is the scale of the economy. The Tragedy of the Commons thesis (discussed in Topic 7) identifies how self-interest leads to resources being over-consumed to the point where the resource stock collapses. The message from these brief examples is that maximising economic production or individual self-interest does not lead to socially optimal outcomes. Sustainable economics There are two forms of sustainable economics that we focus on in this topic – industrial ecology and natural capitalism. These are not different economic models. Rather, natural capitalism has evolved from ecological economics drawing on the principles of biomimicry and industrial ecology to redesign economic systems. Your next reading provides an introduction to the coming age of sustainable business. This topic is explored again in Topic 10 and in depth in the unit MNG10253 Sustainable Business Management. Topic 9 Economic sustainability 95 r Reading 9.1 DesJardins, JR 2007, Business, Ethics, and the Environment: Imagining a Sustainable Future, Chapter 1 – The Coming Age of Sustainable Business, pp. 1–15. One aim of this unit is to identify the ethical foundations of sustainability by recognising that humankind’s relationship with the natural environment and other humans is both unethical and unsustainable. In this topic, we discuss the business case for sustainability, which is the notion that the transition to sustainability will pay off positively in terms of profit, cash flow and growth for business organisations. The business case for sustainability is self-evident over a long-term time horizon as unsustainable economic activity cannot continue indefinitely. Protecting the ecological life-support system has to be good for business! But the business case is more focused on the short term. Sustainability can pay off now according to the business case for sustainability. Ecological economics Dissatisfaction with the answers provided by neoclassical economic theory has led to a new form of ecological economics, which has the objective of defining and guiding the implementation of the concept of sustainability. Ecological economics is distinguished from neoclassical economics in its explicit recognition of: • scale of industrial activity must be limited to the carrying capacity of the ecosystem • time horizon – decision making takes place within a long-term context, including at least the next generation • income distribution – a fairer allocation of wealth and opportunity within and between generations is considered central to sustainability. Neoclassical economic theory focuses on the role of markets in allocating resources to the most efficient economic units. Land, labour and capital are regarded as the factors of production, other natural resources being treated as free inputs into the production process. External costs such as pollution and degradation of natural resources are excluded from the market’s price mechanism, resulting in market failure from systematic under-pricing of goods and services. Ecological economists argue for a structured bequest package consisting of resilient ecosystems with critical natural capital maintained at current levels, and levels of renewable and non-renewable resources that provide future generations with an equivalent level of opportunities and options as those available to this generation. In challenging the assumption of the fungibility of natural and human-made resources, ecological economists view natural capital and human-made capital as complements rather than substitutes. Limited supply of natural capital is perceived as the constraining factor limiting continued economic growth. This switches the focus from growth in the volume of production to qualitative development; for example, improvements in education, health, leisure and nutrition. Industrial ecology Industrial ecology focuses on designing industrial systems to be compatible with the natural ecosystems on which they are dependent. Industrial ecology is a relatively new academic discipline that synthesises the principles of ecology with the principles of business. Industrial ecology is very much the science of sustainability encompassing many related ideas such as: • industrial metabolism – the study of material and energy consumption • dematerialisation – reducing natural resource materials inputs into economic systems • life cycle analysis – identifying the environmental impact of a product over its entire life cycle 96 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability • design for the environment – design products and services to minimise environmental impact • eco-industrial parks – symbiotic industrial networks which collectively reduce waste and inefficiencies. Your next reading introduces industrial ecology and the prototype of an industrial ecosystem at Kalundborg in Denmark. r Reading 9.2 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al., 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 133–137. In Reading 9.2, the complex process of product and waste reuse and recycling is illustrated in Figure 5.1 on page 137. This industrial ecology has evolved organically over many years driven by individual initiatives of corporate and local government management. The Asnaes Power Plant is located at the centre of the industrial ecosystem as they started this process in the early 1980s by recycling waste heat (steam) directly to the oil refinery and a pharmaceutical company (Novo Nordisk). In 1991, the oil refinery installed a process to remove sulphur from its emissions providing cleaner energy and a saleable byproduct. Fly-ash emission from coal generation is collected and used in concrete production, and waste heat from the oil refinery is used to warm the waters of the nearby fish farm. These are just some examples of the industrial symbiosis that has developed at Kalundborg reducing waste and enabling cost savings. Figure 9.2 Dilbert, http://www.dilbert.com c Film Biomimicry, David Suzuki, The Nature of Things http://live.scu.edu.au/Mediasite/Play/7b9cb175f9be45f0855537b637d113071d The film is a special from David Suzuki’s The Nature of Things on the topic of Biomimicry providing an excellent introduction to the biomimicry concept, as well as examples as to how the concept can be applied to business. Topic 9 Economic sustainability 97 Biomimicry Biomimicry provides a strategy for redesigning economic production systems. One of the critical barriers to sustainability is the design of the economy which produces goods and services. As described in Reading 9.2, in production terms we are using the industrial design of the first industrial revolution which began way back in the nineteenth century referred to as the take–make–waste production system. Biomimicry studies nature’s production systems and mimics these designs to solve human problems, such as pollution and resource depletion. Nature’s production system uses locally grown raw materials and renewable solar energy, and there is no waste over the entire product life cycle. Some examples provided in Janine Benyus’ excellent book Biomimicry, Innovation Inspired by Nature (1997) include: • the redesign of farms in the image of grassland prairies to be self-fertilising and pest resistant • spinning fibre for cloth production, mimicking the method spiders use to make webs • shatterproof ceramic production inspired by abalone, which produce shells without kilns, mining or waste. Your next two readings discuss biomimetic design and some of the problems encountered when applying the principle of biomimicry to business. r Reading 9.3 Benyus, J 1997, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, Harper, New York, pp. 253–277. r Reading 9.4 Mueller, T 2008, ‘Biomimetics: Design by nature’, National Geographic, vol. 213, no. 4, pp. 68–83. Natural capitalism Industrial production is extraordinarily inefficient. Our economy is entirely dependent on living systems (natural capital). The study of industrial metabolism reveals that approximately 94% of raw materials used in manufacturing durable products become waste before the product is manufactured. The supply of these resources is finite. As a result, we are wasting a dwindling resource and reducing options available to future generations. When natural capital is included in product cost, prices and the evaluation of efficiency will alter dramatically. Natural capital is treated as a free input in neoclassical economic models. National accounting systems record the consumption of social and natural capital as growth. For example, the cost of cleaning up a massive oil spill such as that from the Exxon Valdez increases economic production as economists measure it. In other words, it has a positive impact on economic growth! Nature is difficult to value, but a zero value leads to the environment being ignored in the economic decisionmaking process, which is a major cause of environmental destruction. What financial value should be placed on the earth’s atmosphere? Given that we have no idea how to make a new one, this suggests a current value of infinity and any activities that destroy the existing balance of the atmosphere would be contrary to sustainability. 98 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Figure 9.3 Dilbert, http://www.dilbert.com Hawken et al. (1999) provide examples of industrial processes redesigned to dramatically reduce environmental impact using principles of design-for-environment, dematerialisation (getting more production from fewer natural resource inputs) and industrial ecology. These examples include: • quantum semiconductors that store vast amounts of information on chips no bigger than a dot • e-commerce to replace shopping malls • diodes that emit light for 20 years without bulbs • ultrasound washing machines that use no water, heat or soap • design-with-nature biological technologies that reduce or eliminate the need for insecticides and fertilisers • plastics that are both reusable and compostable. Your next reading provides an introduction to and critique of natural capitalism. r Reading 9.5 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 143–147. Case study – Guitang Sugar in Guangxi In the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomonous Region in the far south of China, a state-owned enterprise called the Guitang Group of companies has created an industrial network to utilise byproducts and reduce waste and pollution. Guitang produces sugar, alcohol, cement, paper, calcium carbonate, fertiliser, alkalis and energy. Figure 9.4 illustrates the industrial production loop created at Guitang. The top of Figure 9.4 shows the output from sugar cane farms being sent to the sugar mill and then the sugar refinery. The refinery produces low quality waste molasses, which is used to make alcohol. The residue from alcohol production is used to make fertiliser, which is used as an input by cane farmers, thus completing the industrial loop. Topic 9 Economic sustainability 99 Farmers sugarcane plantation COMPOUND FERTILIZER Compound fertilizer plant Alcohol plant White liquid treatment Pulp and Paper Mills White liquor Recovered ber Recovered water ALCOHOL PAPER CEMENT SUGAR Alcohol residue Clean air emissions Clean water euent Cool ash Other cement plants Road Construction Lagoon Boiler House Scrubber Alkali recovery plant Cement mill CaCO3 Filter mud Used CO2 Sugercane Juice Sugercane Sugar mill External sugar reneries Sugar Renery White sludge Black liquor Alkali Bagasse Pith Mid-stream waste water Flue gas (with SO2 ) Hot bottom ash Molasses Figure 9.4 Guitang Group Industrial network, Zhu et al. 2007, p. 34 Sugar production includes pure sugar, organic sugar and fructose with waste molasses being produced as a byproduct. The alcohol plant produces ethanol fuel, edible alcohol and yeast from the molasses and sugar refinery waste; the pulp and paper production system uses long fibre bagasse, which is the fibrous waste from the sugar mill to produce paper. Short fibre bagasse is burned in a co-generation plant to produce energy sufficient to power the entire network. Cement and fertiliser are produced from the network’s solid and water waste flows. Dust and sulfur are removed from alkaline waste water and neutralised with acidic sulfur smoke in the co-generation plant producing steam and electricity. Fly-ash from the cogeneration plant is used to treat wastewater from the paper mill. Waste water is filtered, separating slag and sludge which is recycled through the production units. The filtered residue from sugar production and white mud from pulp making are used to make calcium carbonate. Fly-ash and sewage sludge are used as fertiliser for sugar cane. An alkali recovery plant recycles waste from the pulping operation to make a white sludge used to make cement. The network takes full advantage of byproduct utilisation and pollution and waste reduction. What was primarily a sugar production system has been transformed into a complex network of manufacturing systems producing four additional products, substantially increasing revenue and reducing pollution. 100 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability k Case question Identify the causes of reduced environmental impact at Guitang which occurred as a direct result of establishing an industrial ecology. a Activity – Sustainable business design Select a business with which you are familiar. It may be your employer, a local business or your favourite fast food franchise. What is the main product (or service) which this business sells? What are the major raw material inputs necessary to make this product? What are the main points in the production process where energy is consumed and pollution discharged? Using the principles of industrial ecology, natural capitalism, biomimetic design or waste equals food are you able to suggest changes to the design of the product or to the production and distribution processes which make these processes less unsustainable? References Hawken, P 1993, The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability, Phoenix, London. Hawken, P, Lovins, A & Hunter Lovins, L 1999, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Little, Brown & Company, Boston. Zhu, Q, Lowe, E & Wei, Y 2007, ‘Industrial symbiosis in China: A case study of the Guitang Group’, Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 31–42. Online discussion boards are set up to facilitate discussion of Study Guide activities and case studies. Concluding comments New forms of economics that place environmental concerns at the centre of decision making are gaining increasing support within business. This topic introduced two forms of sustainable business; industrial ecology and natural capitalism both of which are underpinned by the design principle of biomimicry. In Topic 10, we continue this discussion of sustainable business by introducing another model referred to as cradle to cradle design. Each of these new business models requires further exploration and application to determine their potential for replacing the environmentally destructive take-make-waste production system. 101 Topic 10 Sustainable organisations Design for sustainability One of the major problems with our economy is we got the design wrong. When we designed production systems the focus was cost minimisation (we all like a bargain) and productivity (large volumes lead to low average cost). The objective of course is to make loads of profit. An interesting issue is raised by the US business ethicist Joseph DesJardins who believes the focus on profit maximisation as an objective of business confuses the means with the end purpose. DesJardins says profit is no more the purpose of business than breathing is the purpose of life. Breath is essential for life, but is not the purpose. Similarly he says profits are essential for business but they are not the end purpose. The purpose of business is to provide society with the goods and services they need to live healthy and meaningful lives. This is the very reason we set up business corporations. DesJardins’ argument is critical because it implies that if in the pursuit of profit we compromise the main objective of facilitating a healthy world and society then business has failed. Given that business is destroying the only available ecological life support system you may have thought this failure was already abundantly obvious. We need to design economic production systems which recognise the goal of business is to enable a healthy and meaningful existence for all, and not just the privileged few. A plausible and inspiring solution to the economic design problem is ‘biomimicry’. Biomimicry is the design of business systems in the image of nature. In nature there is no concept of waste. Natural systems are fuelled by renewable solar energy. An example is the Eastgate building in Zimbabwe. This building takes its design inspiration from the self-cooling system used by termites. The internal temperature of a termite mound varies as little as 1 °C whilst the external temperature might vary between freezing and 45 °C. Termites use tunnels and conduits to maintain temperature and regulate humidity. Using these design principles architects designed a building which consumes 10 percent of the energy consumed by a conventional building providing large cost savings and significantly reduced greenhouse gas emissions (www.biomimicryinstitute.org). Sustainable business organisations develop ‘symbiotic’ business networks where they purchase their supplies locally, redesign production systems so what was formerly waste becomes a production input for a neighbouring business, and redesign their finished product so that it can be efficiently recycled or safely breaks down into the biosphere. Sustainable organisations provide holistic solutions to meet the needs of customers. For example, rather than selling a high energy consuming space heater or air conditioner a design consultant will look at heating and cooling solutions using a combination of insulation, glazing, window tinting, roof design, ventilation and (maybe) a solar powered fan. Most importantly sustainable organisations will meet the needs of the broad set of stakeholders who are affected by their actions including the disenfranchised poorer communities, future generations and non human species. (www.echonews.com.au) 102 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Suggested study time Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Design for sustainability Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 10.1 to 10.4 4.5 Film: Waste equals food 0.5 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Case study: Coopers Brewery 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision Quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 10.1 DesJardins, JR 2007, Business, Ethics, and the Environment: Imagining a Sustainable Future, Chapter 5, pp. 63–64 & 80–83. 10.2 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 147–148. 10.3 McDonough, W 1998, ‘The NEXT industrial revolution’, The Atlantic Monthly, October, vol. 282, no. 4, pp. 82–92. 10.4 Quiggin, J 2012, ‘The end of the nuclear renaissance’, The National Interest, January 3, viewed at http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/the-end-the-nuclear-renaissance-6325 c Film Waste equals food – watch at http://vimeo.com/3237777 or http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/waste-food/. Objectives On completion of this topic, you should be able to: • compare profit maximisation with sustainability as the primary business objective • explain the principles of cradle to cradle design and waste equals food • discuss the role of technology in business sustainability • describe the general sustainable business model. Topic 10 Sustainable organisations 103 Overview This topic continues the discussion of sustainable business from Topic 9, introducing the cradle to cradle design model, sometimes referred to as the waste equals food system and working towards a summary model of a sustainable business organisation. Don’t be fooled by the simplicity of the waste equals food idea. The best ideas are generally simple ones. See, for example, the brilliant work of McDonough and Braungart consulting for the Rohner Fabric Mill in Switzerland, which is a case study included on the recommended film for this week. We also introduce technology critical to sustainability in business, focusing on renewable energy and zero emissions transport. Profit maximisation and sustainability In Topic 9, we discussed the importance of the work of Adam Smith who, in 1776, wrote The Wealth of Nations and identified the famous ‘invisible hand of the market’ which suggests that many economic actors can pursue their own self-interest, yet magically lead us to an optimal outcome for society-at-large. In an earlier book titled The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith explored the link between moral judgment and self-interest. He recognised that individuals pursuing their own self-interest had to advance the interests of society. Smith knew capitalism needed morality to operate effectively. What is the primary objective of business? No doubt your response will be something akin to the idea of profit maximisation. However in your next reading, Desjardins describes the primary purpose of business as the supply of goods and services we need to live healthy and meaningful lives, with profit being a means to enable the business to achieve this end. Adam Smith recognised that capitalism motivated only by profit is divorced from its moral roots and becomes a destructive force, consuming the very resources (people and nature) it depends on. r Reading 10.1 DesJardins, J 2007, Business, Ethics, and the Environment: Imagining a Sustainable Future, Chapter 5, pp. 63–64 & 80–83. Cradle to cradle design US architect William McDonough and chemist, Michael Braungart have developed a framework for industrial design which is almost identical to natural capitalism. The Cradle to Cradle Design or Waste equals Food model is a vision of a sustainable economy consisting of closed loop production systems using biomimicry and ecological principles. Economic systems are designed to achieve high production levels and profits over the investor’s time horizon, which is typically short to medium term. Cradle to Cradle Design principles eliminate negative environmental impacts at the product design phase by drawing on biomimetic design principles. Waste, pollution and excess resource consumption are designed out of production systems which are fuelled by renewable energy and designed to turn waste streams into inputs for other industrial systems. A short introduction to waste equals food is provided in your next reading. 104 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability r Reading 10.2 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 147–148. c Film Waste equals food – watch at http://vimeo.com/3237777 or http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/waste-food/. This is an excellent film with some mainstream business examples used to illustrate this new sustainable business model. My understanding is the building system developed by McDonough for the Chinese city didn’t work; and if you do some research, you will find some criticism of McDonough’s management style (and fee structure). Our focus needs to be on the concepts and tools of sustainable business, rather than personalities, because realistically most of us are flawed in some way. McDonough’s design philosophy is well explained in your next reading. r Reading 10.3 McDonough, W 1998, ‘The NEXT industrial revolution’, The Atlantic Monthly, October, vol. 282, no. 4, pp. 82–92. Sustainable technology A significant obstacle to sustainability, and specifically sustainability in business, is the reality that the global economy has been built upon a series of unsustainable technologies, typically reliant on fossil fuels and the production of large volumes of waste, some of which is highly toxic. This is not only true of our energy and transport systems, but also food production systems and building design. Every stage in the production and operating cycles within these sectors is reliant on unsustainable resource use and the hope that Mother Earth can absorb the discharge of toxic waste. The good news is that with current available technologies we can transform the energy, transport, agriculture and building sectors. The fact that we haven’t done this already demonstrates our preference for short-term material gains ahead of urgent structural change. As an introduction to feasible technological change, we’ll briefly review renewable energy and zero emission transport options. Potential renewable sources of energy include geothermal, hydroelectric from river, wave and tidal flows, wind, solar and biomass power. Nuclear is not a sustainable or clean energy source; in fact, it produces the most toxic waste product known to humankind. The aim of Australia’s carbon tax is to make low carbon sources of energy such as wind and solar more economically viable relative to coal-generated electricity. There is considerable potential in Australia to produce geothermal energy, which utilises naturally occurring heat near the earth’s surface to generate electricity. Australia has large areas of hot dry rock beds, particularly granite belts, yet, because they lie (sometimes) kilometres below the ground, deep drilling is required access the heat which is used to generate electricity. While the potential to generate geothermal energy is enormous, there are obstacles that need to be removed relating to transmission of electricity from the geothermal site to large cities where the energy is consumed, the high cost of deep drilling, and the need for large volumes of water which, once accessed, is continuously recycled. Topic 10 Sustainable organisations 105 There are numerous examples of successful renewable energy infrastructure being installed all over the world. Unfortunately, Australia has been extremely slow to follow. This decade, China will have renewable generating capacity greater than Australia’s total electricity consumption, providing evidence that large amounts of energy can be supplied from renewable sources. Figure 10.1 Wind energy in China (http://www.zimbio.com/pictures/LiZbet6–5yh/China+Strives+Accelerate+Develo pment+China/IVuu2oR9eMM) Climate Friendly, in partnership with the Xinjiang Tianfeng Wind Power Company, has developed the Xinjiang Dabancheng Sanchang Wind Power Project in Xinjiang Province, China, consisting of 33 wind turbines feeding energy into the north-west China power grid, thereby avoiding the emission of 134,900 tonnes of carbon dioxide. 106 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Energy from biomass in Thailand In Thailand’s Phetchaburi province, the Kangwal Biomass Project uses a 6.98 thermal megawatt biomass heater to generate energy from renewable biomass waste such as rice husks and coconut shells. This avoids the consumption of approximately 11,000 tonnes of coal per year. Figure 10.2 Biomass plant in Thailand (https://climatefriendly.com/projects#mungcharoen) Figure 10.3 Compressed air car (www. mdi.lu/English/) Zero emission transport MDI International has designed and produced small vehicles powered by compressed air. For a genuinely sustainable transport option, the air cylinders need to be refilled with compressed air generated from renewable energy, and chassis would need to be made from recycled materials. You can also view a video of a prototype vehicle at www.mdi.lu and unless you are fluent in French, click the English language option. Topic 10 Sustainable organisations 107 Australia is lagging behind the United States and Europe in providing electric vehicle alternatives to petrol vehicles. However, Mitsubishi, BMW, General Motors, Renault and Nissan and car makers from China, all plan to release electric vehicles in Australia. A major barrier to widespread adoption and potential environmental benefits is the provision of the required infrastructure to support the cars. AGL committed to building battery recharge stations, powered by renewable energy sources, in Australia’s capital cities by 2015, although that goal now seems further away. Your next reading discusses renewable versus nuclear energy and provides some good news regarding the cost of solar power. r Reading 10.4 Quiggin, J 2012, ‘The end of the nuclear renaissance’, The National Interest, January 3, viewed at http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/the-end-the-nuclear-renaissance-6325 Model of a sustainable business organisation The critical elements of the sustainable business models discussed in Topics 9 and 10 have been combined in the general model depicted in Figure 10.4. The model shows sustainable business organisations (SBOs) forming industrial ecosystems by co-locating in industrial networks; drawing raw materials and transport services from sustainable sources; powered by renewable energy; and producing goods for customers which biodegrade at the end of their economic lives or which become food for other industrial production systems. Natural capital is maintained through continual reinvestment and social equity is achieved through recognition of all of the social impacts of business and prioritisation of social wellbeing. Figure 10.4 Closed loop model of a Sustainable Business Organisation (Moscardo G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, p. 153) There are very few, if any, large business organisations which conform to the ideal benchmark set by this model currently operating in the global economy. But the necessary technology is available or extremely close to available to enable near sustainability to be achieved. 108 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability a Activity – Improving sustainability performance Referring to the Topic 9 activity, how can your chosen business improve its sustainability performance in the specific performance categories of carbon management, energy management, transport and waste management? Case study – Coopers Brewery Coopers Brewery is a family-owned brewery located in Adelaide, Australia, which began brewing in 1862. Coopers has differentiated their product by combining environmental innovation in the form of energy co-generation, natural ingredients and a traditional fermentation process to position their product in the premium beer market. Coopers reduces water consumption by using a desalination plant and the company’s carbon footprint is reduced by generating electricity and heat from one fuel source using co-generation technology. AGL, a large energy company, installed the co-generation plant on the Coopers Brewery site and sell electricity to Coopers with excess electricity (about 75% of total electricity produced) being exported back to the national grid. The 4.4 megawatt co-generation plant cost $6.2 million to build, and uses natural gas to generate electricity for Coopers Brewery and refrigeration process. Co-generation is provided by collecting ‘waste’ heat from the low-emission gas turbine using a waste heat recovery boiler to create steam used to power air conditioning and refrigeration. This method of electricity generation has led to a 15,000 tonne per annum reduction in carbon emissions. Coopers Brewery provides a useful example of co-generation using a natural gas powered plant financed by a large energy company. This has led to significant reductions in carbon emissions, but given natural gas is a non-renewable carbon emitting fuel source, this represents a stepping stone technology rather than a sustainable energy solution. k Case question Is Coopers’ co-generation plant an example of sustainable technology? If not, why? Online discussion boards are set up to facilitate discussion of Study Guide activities and case studies. Concluding comments New technologies and innovative design criteria provide models of sustainable businesses which are already capable of achieving performance close to the optimal sustainability benchmark. The brilliant work of RMI, Hawken, McDonough, Braungart and many others showcases the next industrial revolution. What is needed now is a change in values prioritising the sustainable business project and the political will to make this happen. Sustainable business is not inevitable, but it is feasible. 109 Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues Danone In 2006 Danone, a French multinational food and beverage corporation, formed a partnership with a charitable organisation (Grameen) to produce nutritionally fortified yoghurt in Bangladesh to solve the problem of malnutrition amongst children in rural villages. They designed Shakti Doi, a nutritional yoghurt product high in protein, vitamins and minerals and produced the product locally and cheaply so it is affordable for the rural, poor. Local farmers produce the milk, local women sell the product door-to-door and to small groceries, creating substantial employment in the local region. Production and distribution of Shakti Doi resulted in low environmental impact because of the use of renewable energy, recycling water, biodegradable packaging; and designing the product to maintain quality for one week without refrigeration. An unexpected benefit was the goodwill created by Danone making it a preferred employer for high-quality, new personnel. This is just one of thousands of examples showing the power of business to solve social problems. Study time and materials Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Danone Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 11.1 to 11.4 4 Film: The Future of Food 1 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Case study: The Fair Trade 1 Online discussion questions Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours 110 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Materials required Readings 11.1 Greenpeace 2008, ‘GM crops: Too many risks to ignore’, September update. 11.2 Mnyusiwalla, A, Daar, A & Singer P 2003, ‘Mind the gap: Science and ethics in nanotechnology’, Nanotechnology, vol. 14, pp. 9–13. 11.3 Pogge, T 2001, ‘We have a very strong moral obligation to help impoverished people in other countries’, in Consider Ethics, 2nd edn, B Waller (ed.), pp. 310–316. 11.4 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 433–436, 440–445, 450–451. Films What is nanotechnology – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuljCWV6gLU Carbon nano, ABC Catalyst show – http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/3296794.htm The Fair Trade, what is your life worth? by Burning Heart productions – http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8TgGixncKtA Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • discuss the ethics of reproductive and therapeutic cloning • discuss the ethical issues arising from scientific advances in biotechnology • evaluate the contribution business can make to poverty alleviation. Overview This topic synthesises ethics and sustainability concepts through the application of the tools and concepts introduced in this unit to two major contemporary global issues: • cloning, biotechnology and nanotechnology • global poverty focusing on business solutions. The tragedy of extreme poverty provides the opportunity to explore both humanitarian and business solutions. Social business models such as social entrepreneurship and fair trade provide inspiring examples of how to alleviate poverty using the tools of business. Cloning Figure 11.1 Dilbert (http://www.dilbert.com) Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues 111 Cloning refers to the copying of biological material. Three cloning methods currently in use are: 1. DNA cloning where a DNA fragment is transferred to a foreign host for replication. This was the method of cloning referred to in the Jurassic Park movies where fictionally dinosaurs were created from DNA recovered from insects preserved in amber. This method of cloning is commonplace, yet (unfortunately?) no dinosaur DNA has been recovered as yet! 2. Reproductive cloning transferring the genetic material from the nucleus of the donor to an egg whose nucleus has been removed. The egg is then implanted into the uterus of a female host. This is the method used to produce Dolly the sheep in 1996. 3. Therapeutic cloning using stem cells harvested from the embryos for medical intervention and research. So far there are no verified accounts of human beings produced from cloning. Dolly the sheep was produced from the cell of an adult sheep. She produced natural offspring, but was euthanised in 2003 as she was suffering from a terminal disease. Many other animals have been cloned, but the procedure is highly experimental, with many reported failures including low fertility rates and abnormalities in animals produced. Objections to human reproductive cloning are usually based on a religious argument that only God should create human life; or the natural view that life should only be created from sexual reproduction; or Leon Kass’s repugnance argument also referred to as the yuk factor; sometimes we know something is inherently wrong, it just feels yuk! Figure 11.2 Dilbert (http://www.dilbert.com) Biotechnology Biotechnology, a term coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky, is the scientific ability to manipulate genetic information within and between species (Centre for Integrated Biotechnology). Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are a direct by-product of this technology. While human beings have sought to modify plants, animals and other living organisms for thousands of years, biotechnology differs in that it allows specific genes to be inserted into a recipient cell’s nucleus, leading to more radical changes in the biophysical structure of organic material (McNamara 1999). Opponents of GMOs point to uncertainty in relation to health and environment, affront to ethical and religious beliefs, and economic centralisation of power that GMO technologies can potentially grant to multi-national corporations. Proponents of GMOs profess an abundance of economic, environmental and health benefits that can be derived from this technology by, for example, altering crops to increase food production and the nutritional benefits of food. 112 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Genetic engineering Genetic engineering provides a strong link between the twin pillars of this unit: ethics and sustainability. Since the beginnings of agriculture, generations of farmers have selected for traits that make the most sense within our own particular environment, thereby providing local food systems with a broad range of locally adapted plant varieties and animal breeds. Indigenous farmers in the Andes, for example, cultivate some 3000 different varieties of potatoes (Hodge et al. 2002). Figure 11.3 We would like to be genetically modified to taste like Brussel sprouts (http://www.wutsamada.com/ comix/bsprouts) Genetic engineering provides a new method for creating agricultural varieties. Rather than selecting for particular traits among plants and animals that have proven themselves in nature over centuries, biotechnology enables scientists to select traits in the laboratory. In many cases, scientists carry genetic material across entire species, bypassing reproductive constraints and creating varieties that would never evolve naturally, even with the guiding hand of a skilled breeder. For example: • fish genes have been implanted into tomatoes • human genes into fish • cow genes into soybeans • rat genes into lettuce • human genes into pigs and rice (Hodge et al. 2002). Figure 11.4 Dilbert (http://www.dilbert.com) Significant pressure is coming from some farming groups, agribusiness and government to increase plantings of GM food crops and most States in Australia have now lifted their moratoriums on new plantings of GE crops. Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues 113 Your next reading discusses the risks of biotechnology in agricultural production. r Reading 11.1 Greenpeace 2008, ‘GM crops: Too many risks to ignore’, September update. Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is the next big thing in biotechnology. Depending on whom you believe and your own personal worldview, nanotechnology offers the greatest potential for technological advancement, or a high risk of human-caused environmental catastrophe! Nanotechnology is a new technology that operates at the molecular level. It has the capacity to combine different technologies acting as a platform for communications, information technology, biotechnology, agriculture, medicine, manufacturing, energy and military applications. Despite warnings about the potential hazards of nanotechnology, there are no new regulations in place to protect workers, the public and the environment from the specific threats presented by this new technology. No regulations are in place to require products that contain nanomaterials to be labelled or to require environmental health and safety tests specific to inherent risks posed by nanomaterials, prior to products being commercially available. Australian products containing nanomaterials include: • antiwrinkle creams and moisturisers • transparent sunscreens and lotions • foundations and face powders • lipstick • blush and eye shadow • nail polish • deodorants • toothpastes • soap • shampoos • hair conditioners. There are many potential sources of environmental contamination. Nanoparticles will be released into the environment from deliberate and accidental waste streams, on disposal of products that contain nanomaterials, as nano pesticides and fertilisers are applied to crops. Similar to chemical pollution, the concerns over nanopollution are based on the accumulation and toxicity of nanoparticles which find their way into the food chain. The minute size of nanomaterials poses additional risk, since particles are readily absorbed through the skin. Health impacts in many cases are long term, and it may take 20–50 years before epidemics are recognised in the general population, as was the case with tobacco and asbestos poisoning. A major ethical issue pertains to the commercial release of new technology where tests as to the long-term safety of the products are non-existent. However, the potential benefits of nanotechnology are enormous and drive research and commercial release of products containing nanomaterials before a clear understanding of potential health, safety and environmental impacts. Your next reading provides a discussion of the ethics of nanotechnology. 114 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability r Reading 11.2 Mnyusiwalla, A, Daar, A & Singer, P 2003, ‘Mind the gap: Science and ethics in nanotechnology’, Nanotechnology, vol. 14, pp. 9–13. Proponents and critics alike suggest that the real transformative power of nanotechnology lies in its capacity to converge different technologies that can operate at this scale. They suggest that nanoscale science will act as a platform technology, thereby enabling breakthroughs in a wide number of different fields: communications and information technology, cognitive science, biotechnology, agriculture, medicine, manufacturing, energy production, military and environmental remediation to name a few. United Kingdom’s Royal Society has warned that the risks of nanotoxicity are serious. In its 2004 report on nanotechnology, the Royal Society recommended that nanomaterials should be treated as new chemicals and be subject to new safety assessments prior to their inclusion in consumer products. Like chemical pollution, the concerns over nanopollution are based on the persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of nanoparticles and other nanostructures and products. Nanoparticles and other nanostructures will be released into the air, soil and water in the form of environmental remediation products; through waste streams from factories and research laboratories; as fixed or unfixed nanoparticles in composite products and particularly after nanoproducts have been disposed of; in the form of nanochemical pesticides and fertilisers; accidental releases during handling or transport; as components of military weapons; and through the explosion of nanopowders. Nanobiotechnology goes further: it aims to stretch the capabilities of biology beyond the limits imposed by evolution and species separation. Nanobiotechnology’s holy grail is to build molecular machines containing both biological and engineered synthetic components – combining the living and the nonliving, integrating the biochemistry of life with the chemistry of the nonliving. Films There are numerous films available relevant to the issues covered in this topic. The Future of Food up to the GM tomato debacle is interesting. Here are some links: The Future of Food – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bfxhsy9geAQ What is nanotechnology? – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuljCWV6gLU Carbon nano, ABC Catalyst show – http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/3296794.htm Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues 115 Contemporary issue: Global poverty Almost one-half of the world’s population live on less than $2 per day, whereas 20% of the world’s population living in economically wealthy countries like Australia consume over 85% of economic production. One cause of poverty is this extremely inequitable distribution of global wealth. A minimalist humanitarian position is that we owe a duty to fellow humans threatened with starvation, severe malnutrition and premature death from preventable disease. The universal duty of rescue from immediate danger creates a responsibility to intervene when the lives of foreign citizens are threatened. International aid flows to impoverished nations is a response to this duty. The minimalist moral view is that we are obliged to pursue our ends within boundaries that leave others free to pursue their ends. We relieve others from extreme threats if we can do so without sacrificing our ends. This minimalist position often involves a belief that free trade and market capitalism provide an opportunity for people to work their way out of poverty. Unsurprisingly, the global economic architecture administered by the IMF, World Bank and World Trade Organization consisting of a complex network of trade treaties, labour and environmental standards, investment and finance agreements, tax law, and intellectual property rights arrangements, have been designed by and largely for affluent societies. Impoverished communities lack the infrastructure to participate effectively in the global economy. Furthermore, potential workers are in many cases physically or mentally impaired through disease, malnutrition or illiteracy. This minimalist position supports continued global poverty and needs to be rejected. The responsibility of economically wealthy countries to eliminate global poverty in part stems from their historical connection with the poor. The same acts of genocide, colonialism and slavery that explain their poverty led to modern Western affluence. The moral principle of ‘reparation’ requires restoration and compensation to the victims of these crimes. We benefit from the expanding global economy and have a responsibility to remedy the negative social and environmental impacts of the global economy. Otherwise, we are guilty of inaction, which results in the impoverishment, starvation and deaths of millions of innocent people by economic means. Whether we invoke a Kantian duty of responsibility not to use foreign citizens to meet out global economic ends, or whether we acknowledge that to be a virtuous society all members of the global community must receive an equitable share of wealth, we reach the same inevitable conclusion, that is, the minimalist position places insufficient priority on poverty alleviation. Peter Singer has written extensively on the issue of global poverty and the urgent need for a transfer of wealth from the rich to the poor. As a utilitarian, he argues that the cost of a wealthy person giving up each extra dollar is far outweighed by the benefit received by the poor person who can use each dollar to meet their basic needs for food, shelter, clothing, health care, and education. According to this view, wealth should be transferred until the basic needs of every person in the world are met. In 1972, Peter Singer wrote an article condemning this lack of compassion for strangers in his hypothetical case of a person rushing to work and deciding not to help a young child drowning in a shallow pond, for fear of being late and getting a new suit wet. Singer notes that such an act would be monstrous; and compares this with the indifference of wealthy Westerners towards images of children starving in Africa. The Australian Government contributes about 0.3 of 1% of GDP to international aid. Sweden contributes 1% of GDP. In your next reading, Pogge continues the theme of the moral obligation to alleviate poverty. Source: http://www.dilbert.com 116 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability r Reading 11.3 Pogge, T 2001, ‘We have a very strong moral obligation to help impoverished people in other countries’, in B Waller (ed.), Consider Ethics, 2nd edn, pp. 310–316. Social business What we have discussed so far is the donor model of poverty alleviation. It’s an essential component of humanitarian duty, but it’s not without problems. Unfortunately, aid flows sometimes fail to reach those in need as funds are redirected by corrupt government and corporate officials. Provision of essential goods can also create aid dependency rather than encouraging self-sufficiency. These problems necessitate a carefully managed approach to aid donations where donors, together with governments in the recipient nations, set up systems of accountability and control. Another form of aid is administered using the business model of poverty alleviation. As will be seen, this model builds the capacity for self-reliance as people living in poverty create their own livelihoods to support themselves and their families. This is already happening on a fairly large scale in many parts of the world. The crucial missing link is available finance and a social entrepreneur! Social entrepreneurs develop financially self-supporting business with the mission to solve a specific social problem. The problem could be poverty, sanitation, healthcare, housing or malnutrition, and the solution is to provide the necessary service at a low, affordable cost applying the principles of business. Large corporations looking to expand their corporate social responsibility portfolios are a potential source for the initial capital required to start social business projects. Examples include the joint venture between Danone and Grameen to developed low cost, nutritional yoghurt for children in Bangladesh; a not-for-profit organisation and large pharmaceutical company developing a vaccine to combat malaria; and Unilever marketing Lifebuoy soap in India to improve hygiene in rural villages as part of a public health campaign. However, the best example of social business is microfinance. Economist Muhammad Yunus founded the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh in 1976. He gave poor rural women small loans to start their own businesses to enable them to work their way out of poverty. Some of these loans were astoundingly small. Microfinance is based on a premise that poverty is created by the institutions and policies which surround the poor. Yunus’ first loan of US$27 to 42 individual borrowers has become famous, and Grameen Bank is now one of many financial institutions providing microfinance. Grameen has lent over US$8 billion to 2.1 million borrowers; however, the need for microfinance loans is broad enough to require this volume of business to be increased by a factor of 100. Yunus won the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize for his work with Grameen Bank. Social Traders (www.socialtraders.com.au) define social enterprises as organisations that trade to fulfil a social mission. Social Traders estimate there are 20,000 social business organisations in Australia. Paul Hawken (2007) suggests there could be ten million non-profit organisations worldwide addressing environmental, indigenous rights and social justice issues. His explanation as to the proliferation and rise of the social organisation movement is the human instinctive reaction to protect life: Life is the most fundamental human right, and all the movements within the (social) movement are dedicated to creating the conditions for life — conditions that include livelihood, food, security, peace, a stable environment, and freedom from external tyranny. Whenever and wherever that right is violated, human beings rise up. Today they are rising up in record numbers. Your next reading discusses social entrepreneurship and the Fairtrade forms of social business. Four inspiring cases: Danone, the Song Room, the Toledo Cacao Growers’ Cooperative and the Homeless World Cup demonstrate the depth and diversity of ideas used to implement the business model of poverty alleviation. Topic 11 Contemporary ethical and global sustainability issues 117 r Reading 11.4 Moscardo, G, Lamberton, G & Wells, G et al. 2012, Sustainability in Australian Business: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, pp. 433–436, 440–445, 450–451. Case study – The Fair Trade c Film This film tells the true story of a woman whose life has been transformed by establishing a Fair Trade business called ‘antibody’. For me the most powerful moment in this film is when Tamara travels to Africa and sees the positive benefits of antibody’s decision to engage in fair trade with a co-operative in Togo. The Fair Trade, what is your life worth? by Burning Heart productions http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8TgGixncKtA Concluding comments This topic could have been an entire unit! There are numerous global ethics and sustainability issues which could have formed the basis of our discussions. We chose technology because there is so much investment (financial and psychological) in new green technology providing a path to sustainability. Global poverty is a tragedy with many causes; one of which being exploitation of land and resources by multinational corporations. Paradoxically these organisations also possess the resources to enable the implementation of the business model to alleviate poverty. In Topic 12, we will draw together a collection of ideas to inform our discussion of the path to a sustainable global society. References Hawken, P 2007, Blessed Unrest, Viking, New York. SOC10236 Applied E 118 thics and Sustainability 119 Topic 12 A global sustainable society Tell me lies … propaganda is systemic in a democratic, technological, post-industrial information society and (that) instruments of mass media (in particular, advertising and public relations, and other tools of persuasion) are every bit as propagandistic as were totalitarian dictatorships of days gone by (Jay Black, University of South Florida, 2001). What is propaganda? Some definitions suggest it is manipulation and control of human behaviour preying on people’s prejudice and emotion; deceptively utilising symbols, slogans and images and biased information to promote a desired view. Typically these definitions depict a gullible public readily manipulated by a force against which it has minimal defence. The common perception is that propaganda is some form of unethical persuasion; although not all propaganda is deliberate and systematic. In some cases propaganda is a by-product of our contemporary information society; particularly the persuasive culture of mass media. Propaganda can be found within advertising, public relations, entertainment media including TV, film, radio (particularly talkback), and now in social media. Continuous streams of (mis)information from these sources shape our thoughts and beliefs, controlling our behaviour towards a predictable self reproducing norm. Examples of mainstream propaganda include the economic myth of happiness inherent in a consumer life based on a false promise that ‘more is better’; the delusion of civilised progress as nature is destroyed and replaced with shopping malls; the necessity of war against an imaginary enemy; refugees as ‘illegal’ immigrants who are rightly locked up; skinny, underfed models are beautiful; or that bad people and nonbelievers go to hell in the afterlife. Propaganda is anathema to ethics because the ability to control others does not equate to the right to do so, and is contrary to our culture’s fundamental belief in individual freedom; which is in fact how Western propaganda differentiates us from those ‘wretched communist regimes’. Propaganda supplants the search for authentic truth with imposed falsehood. The responsibility of media in a democratic system should be to encourage a public who are curious, questioning, and unwilling to accept simplistic answers to complex political, personal and economic issues. This system values the right of individual choice and freedom to make rational decisions free from manipulation. How can we detect propaganda? Usually it’s characterised by a strong reliance on spokespersons with vested interests, rather than empirical or logical validation. Propaganda spokespersons simplistically create ‘us versus them’ scenarios with an appeal to vanity, fear or prejudice, emphasising conflict rather than cooperation amongst the actors. Often claims made are unverifiable. Consider the example of the Terror kits sent out by the Australian Government to each household after 9/11. In the Q&A section, the question is asked ‘Is Australia a potential terrorist target?’ The answer is ‘every country is a potential target’, thereby establishing an unverifiable foundation of fear to support the need for new laws restricting civil liberties and increasing policing power; which were later used to target Muslims. Most people expect advertising, public relations, editorials and opinion columns to be non-objective and persuasive, if not outright biased. However if we value the ideals of a free society they should be held to higher standards of honesty and transparency. There is a belief that open, liberal education emphasising independence of judgment is an antidote to propaganda; as education helps people learn how to think independently, whereas propaganda tells us what to think. Unfortunately the increasing number of graduates is matched by more technologically and psychologically sophisticated forms of propaganda. 120 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Some analysts believe online media will reduce propagandistic content. Unfortunately the modern information consumer, suffering terribly from information overload may seek out propaganda online as a means of finding order in a chaotic world. However the ethics of social media is a discussion for another time … (www.echonews.com.au) Study time and materials Activity Suggested study time (hours) Vignette: Tell me lies Read Study Guide 1 Lectures and workshops 2.5 Readings – 12.1 to 12.3 4.5 Film 0.5 Online activity Assignment preparation activity Case study: GNH in Bhutan 0.5 Online discussion questions 0.5 Revision quiz 0.5 TOTAL 10 hours Materials required Readings 12.1 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, The Federation Press, Sydney, Chapter 12, 194–199. 12.2 Kenworthy, J 2006, ‘The eco-city: Ten key transport and planning dimensions for sustainable city development’, Environment and Urbanization, vol. 18, no. 67, pp. 67–85. 12.3 Denniss, R 2010, Populate or Perish, Australia Institute Online Opinion, October 5, pp. 1–3. Film Gross National Happiness in Bhutan – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CXJwNSkdTH0 Objectives On completion of this topic you should be able to: • discuss the ethics of climate change • describe the critical features of sustainable city design • discuss sustainable population policy • provide a vision for a sustainable global society. Topic 12 A global sustainable society 121 The ethics of climate change Whilst there are many dimensions of the environmental crisis that necessitate the sustainability discourse, none receives the attention afforded to climate change. Climate change poses an ethical dilemma and an unstable climate renders sustainability unachievable. Given the primary causes of carbon emissions are energy, transport and industrial production (accounting for 75% of anthropogenic carbon emissions), and agriculture and deforestation (accounting for the remaining 25%), the links between business, industrialisation and climate change are apparent. Decisions as morally and temporally complex as climate change response represent an enormous challenge requiring globally coordinated solutions and given the significance of industrial emissions necessarily include business organisations in the process of change. This complexity is demonstrated by the technical difficulty of comparing the relatively low short-term cost and convenience of fossil fuel based energy against the risk of increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, disease epidemics, famine and a degraded environment leading to loss of life, livelihood and wellbeing (IPCC 2007). Climate change response is essentially a debate about sustainability. Sustainability requires our actions do not compromise the opportunity for future generations to meet their own needs. If business transforms to meet the multiple goals of sustainability, this necessarily requires the elimination of reliance on nonrenewable resources towards reliance on nonpolluting, renewable energy sources. Some of the ethical questions relevant to climate change that need answers are: 1. Who bears the cost of climate change response? 2. How much carbon can we continue to release into the atmosphere? 3. How much carbon can everyone else on the planet safely emit? The concept of a global carbon budget will help answer the second and third questions. Average global temperatures are rising and we know that one of the causes is the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The global carbon budget is the amount of carbon and other GHGs that can be emitted without contributing to excessive rises in temperature. At the 2009 Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, it was agreed to reduce carbon emissions to avoid average temperature rises in excess of 2oC. The 2oC target is difficult to convert to tonnes of carbon emissions as yet. But if we assume the global target is 16 billion tonnes of carbon emissions per annum by 2030, and at this time the world’s population is expected to be 8 billion. If we decide that each global citizen has an equal right to emit carbon, this equates to 2 tonnes of carbon emissions per person per annum. Australia and the United States have per capita emissions of about 10 times this amount. In India, per capita carbon emissions are about 1.3 tonnes. If there is international agreement nations emitting above 2 tonnes per capita will need to reduce their emissions down to 2 tonnes per person over the next 20 years, and nations like India and many other Asian countries and all of Africa would be able to increase per capita carbon emissions up to the 2 tonne cap and reap the benefits of the economic growth which burning fossil fuels facilitates. This is where emissions trading provides a better solution. Rather than building an economy dependent on burning fossil fuels as we have done in Australia, India (for example) could build an economy powered by renewable wind, solar and hydro energy. The cost of this infrastructure could be financed by selling their unused capacity to emit carbon up to 2 tonnes per capita to countries such as Australia and the United States that are emitting above this average and struggling to reduce their emissions by the required 80–90%. This financial process is already occurring as corporations and individuals buy carbon credits from organisations such as Climate Friendly (www.climatefriendly.com) to offset their carbon emissions. Climate Friendly pools these funds and (for example) finances the construction of wind farms in Bangladesh and solar power plants in India. Now, some large emitters of carbon will argue that sharing the right to emit carbon equally across the planet is unreasonable. If there is a sound argument for unequal distribution of the global carbon budget, I am keen to hear it. Ethical arguments such as the ‘polluter pays principle’ suggest the responsibility of developed nations runs more deeply than equal rights to emit. With about 5% of the world’s population, the United States has 122 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability managed to emit about 30% of the world’s total historical GHGs. According to the best scientific knowledge, these GHGs are concentrating in the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. A basic ethical principle is ‘you broke it so you fix it’, meaning nations with developed economies should finance a large proportion of the cost of climate change response. Fortunately, those nations which have benefited economically from high historic carbon emissions also have the financial and technological capability to build a new sustainable global economic infrastructure. The human-caused component of climate change is the defining example of a problem that can only be fixed by that which appears impossible, widespread international agreement and cooperation. The key to unlocking this conundrum is to recognise that national interest is outranked by global interest. No country will flourish in a world ravaged by hostile climates. The essential ethical question is not ‘what can I get for myself’ but ‘what can I contribute to the well being of the global community?’. This is not just an altruistic position, it’s supported by logic. If we undermine global wellbeing by destabilising humankind’s ecological life support system, every person on earth will suffer. The goal for each country is to act to maximise the chance of implementation of a global solution. In Australia’s case, this means immediate large cuts in carbon emissions, building infrastructure for the new low carbon economy powered by renewable energy (wind, geothermal, solar, wave), and sharing this technology with developing countries to avoid replication of our carbon intensive lifestyles. The global community continually fails to find a new ethic to energise global cooperation. It appears that we are not yet ready to make the substantial changes required to live within earth’s ecological limits. Until we develop a global ethic where the wellbeing of the global community outranks national interest, we will continue on the path to global disaster. Your next reading from your text begins our discussion of population in the context of poverty and the need for a global ethic. r Reading 12.1 Preston, N 2007, Understanding Ethics, 3rd edn, The Federation Press, Sydney, Chapter 12, pp. 194–199. Sustainable cities Approximately half the world’s population live in cities, and this proportion is expected to increase significantly as the world’s poor move from rural farmland to cities in search of work and incomes above the poverty line. Cities create a major challenge for sustainability as their population density and built environments require high levels of energy and transport consumption to meet their needs. Peter Head is a civil engineer who has written a visionary report into how to achieve sustainability in London by 2050. He sets out clear goals including an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, a reduction in the ecological footprint to an equal per capita share of the earth’s resources, and an improvement in human wellbeing, as well as a detailed action plan of how to achieve these goals. The average ecological footprint needs to be reduced from 5.5 hectares per person to 1.5 hectares, 5.5 hectares being the current equivalent land area required to support the consumption of the average Londoner. Almost 60% of this footprint (environmental impact) is due to housing, food and transport. Head provides an impressive list of changes required to achieve a sustainable city environment and given half of the world’s population live in cities this is an important project. Some of Head’s recommendations, all of which rely only on existing technology, are: 1. A 20% reduction in energy consumption from ‘behavioural change’. This requires consumers to eliminate wasteful consumption patterns such as use of standby power, unnecessary and excessive consumption. Topic 12 A global sustainable society 123 2. Switch to renewable sources of energy such as large scale solar farms located in dry desert regions providing a concentrated high energy yield. 3. Cogeneration of power and heat such as that used by Coopers Brewery in South Australia, where the fuel (which is often natural gas) provides electricity and ‘waste’ steam from the generating process is captured and used to provide heat or (as with Coopers) additional energy for refrigeration. Figure 12.1 Cogeneration plant (http://www.energy.wa.gov.au/1/79/64/Search.pm) 4. Create fuel from organic waste, similar to North Coast Biodiesel which produces vehicle fuel from waste oil derived from plants. 5. Reduce transport needs by intensive production of food in cities using innovations such as the Ecocity Farm developed on the North Coast by Hogan Gleeson and Andrew Bodlovich. 6. Zero-emissions electric and hydrogen fuelled transport vehicles and high speed intercity rail. 7. Mining of construction materials from cities and landfills. As we switch to sustainable forms of urban transport, millions of car bodies are available for recycling, saving the environmental cost of mining new materials. 8. Anaerobic digestion of waste, producing methane for fuel. 9. Provision of walking and cycling routes. 10. LED low energy consumption lighting. The guiding design principle for Head’s new ecological age is biomimicry, which uses the design inspiration of natural systems which operate efficiently without waste, fuelled by 100% solar energy. The German city of Freiburg provides an exciting example of city design for sustainability. Passive solar design of buildings eliminates the need for energy intensive space heating even during cold winters. Car sharing clubs, cycle routes and efficient public transport make car ownership unnecessary. 124 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Figure 12.2 Solar power in Freiburg (http://www.young-germany.de/life-in-germany/life-in-germany/article/ freiburg-germanys-greenest-city.html) Aerial pictures of Freiburg show rooftops covered in solar panels which, together with cogeneration, provide 50% of the town’s energy requirements. Affordable housing is provided by medium density design, owner building and private investment funds. Community spaces are deliberately designed and maintained to promote a safe and socially supportive environment. In Freiburg social wellbeing, environmental preservation and long-term economic viability are the relevant design criteria. Peter Head’s ideas and the Freiburg experiment show near sustainable cities can be designed within the constraints of our existing knowledge base, providing a stark contrast to the heavily polluted, resource wasteful and ecologically dead cities which are the norm throughout the world today. In your next reading, Kenworth (2006) provides an excellent summary of 10 ideas to improve the sustaibability of city design. r Reading 12.2 Kenworthy, J 2006, ‘The eco-city: Ten key transport and planning dimensions for sustainable city development’, Environment and Urbanization, vol. 18, no. 67, pp. 67–85. Topic 12 A global sustainable society 125 Population, immigration and sustainability One of the more complex sustainability policy debates in Australia concerns the optimal size of our population. This complexity is due to the many factors that intersect this issue, including immigration, race, economics, environment and climate change. It is difficult to unravel all of these issues so here we will focus on the link between immigration, population growth and sustainability. First some key statistics and assumptions. 1. The current fertility rate in Australia is 1.97 babies per woman, which is below the population replacement rate of 2.1 and above the current EU average of 1.5. 2. Current immigration is almost 160,000 people per annum and about half as many leave Australia; therefore population will increase by about 80,000 this year on account of net migration. 3. As a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention, Australia resettles a small number of asylum seekers, something which has no significant impact on population projections. A large majority (90%) of asylum seekers arriving by boat are found to be genuine refugees and are granted visas. 4. By 2050, Australia’s population will be significantly larger and significantly older, thereby creating an economic challenge to provide quality health care, fund pensions and provide a productive workforce large enough to ensure continued economic prosperity. 5. Projections based on current immigration and fertility rates suggest Australia’s population will be approximately 33 million by 2050. If the fertility rate falls to EU levels, this would reduce population projections to near 29 million by 2050, but would exacerbate the aging problem. In Australia, we value freedom and support the right of parents to choose the size of their families and we reject the idea of government restrictions on birth rates. We may also reject (or ignore) government attempts to increase fertility using baby bonus or tax policies as this adds to the environmental burden and ignores the global overpopulation problem. We accept that a larger population means more carbon emissions and more pressure on Australia’s limited supply of natural resources. As a member of the global community, we acknowledge the world faces a population time bomb with a grossly unsustainable global population growth rate; as well as widespread social crises necessitating immigration intakes to provide relief on humanitarian grounds, although the absolute level of support is open to debate. Reducing immigration is often suggested as the appropriate response to Australia’s population pressures. If immigration is halved, the population projection by 2050 is 29 million, rather than 33 million. This does not solve the population problem and reductions in the humanitarian intake would add to global suffering, while reductions in the work skills intake would reduce productivity, as immigration is essential to fill gaps in skilled labour. Population growth seems inevitable and the critical question is how will we support Australia’s increased and aging population? We need a discussion about our economic future and how we intend to support ourselves in a global economy where we are more than the world’s quarry. Immigration provides Australia with a culturally diverse and vibrant community; and it provides the multilingual skills and international networks critical to developing business opportunities throughout the global economy. Specific cultural and local knowledge is essential to enable global business to connect with consumers in local markets. These are big issues in need of widespread public discussion and input. Unfortunately, our political leaders appear distracted by the much less significant issue of asylum seekers and how to ensure it doesn’t influence the outcome of another election. In your next reading, the author examines a recent government proposal to increase Australia’s population. r Reading 12.3 Denniss, R 2010, Populate or Perish, Australia Institute Online Opinion, October 5, pp. 1–3. 126 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Living an ethical & sustainable life The objective of sustainability cannot be achieved without a shift in the underlying ethical values which influence human behaviour. Principles of intergenerational equity (preserving the natural environment intact for future generations) and intragenerational equity (poverty alleviation) place moral obligations on members of the current generation to achieve social equity. There is a belief that sustainable development can be achieved by increasing economic growth providing increased economic welfare across the world, achieved by free trade, technology advancements and democratic market economies. The fundamental flaw in this argument is the finite capacity of the natural environment. Ecological footprint analysis (discussed in Topic 7) demonstrates levels of consumption in wealthy economically developed nations are not a realistic benchmark for all nations to strive for. The goal of lifting worldwide consumption to Western levels is not ecologically rational behaviour. Excess consumption in a world afflicted with widespread poverty is immoral and unsustainable. Sustainability requires reduced consumption and reallocation of essential resources. New technologies applying principles of industrial ecology, biomimetic design and natural capitalism have a role to play in transforming the unsustainable economy to an economy that operates within the earth’s carrying capacity. Also of great importance to the transition to a sustainable economy are the moral values of simplicity, moderate consumption, conservation and nonviolence implicit in the goal of sustainable livelihoods. Figure 12.3 draws together much of the material introduced in this unit, showing the multidimensionality of an ethical and sustainable society. This diagram, as is the transition to sustainability, is very much a work in progress. As individuals, there is a clear starting point in our own personal journey towards living an ethical and sustainable life. That is, we begin by working on ourselves. We reflect on our own personal morality and develop an individual ethical code. We strive to make a contribution to the wellbeing of others in our homes, our families, our communities and throughout the global society. Our contribution may target one of the dimensions depicted in Figure 12.3, recognising the need for others to contribute in diverse ways. Ethical & Sustainable Society morality pluralist eco-humanist communitarian virtuous economy natural capitalism waste = food industrial ecology ecology preservation restoration stewardship technology renewable energy biometric design permaculture culture diversity tolerance spirituality ancient wisdom socio-political democratic local identity non oppressive religious freedom alleviate poverty Figure 12.3 Model of an ethical & sustainable society Topic 12 A global sustainable society 127 Being ethical and sustainable To complete our learning in this unit, I would like to provide examples that I find inspiring of ethics and sustainability throughout the world. One of the best examples of an ethical organisation I have seen is the free trade organisation Traidcraft which was the feature case study in Topic 2. Traidcraft’s mission is to alleviate poverty through building trade relationships with suppliers in economically developed countries. Traidcraft was one of the first organisations to provide extensive social accounts upholding the principle of transparency and accountability. These accounts can be viewed at their website at http://www.traidcraft.org/ I don’t know of any 100% sustainable business organisations. Every business operating in a market economy is to some extent dependent on what are currently unsustainable energy, transport and mining systems. However, many enlightened business people are reducing their organisation’s reliance on these global systems by, for example, reducing natural resource inputs, implementing energy efficiency schemes, utilising renewable energy and localising their supply chains. Figure 12.4 Dilbert (http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/dilbert/archive/) Interface’s former CEO Ray Anderson, who is featured in two films on the SOC10236 DVD, provides a genuine example of a CEO committed to transforming his organisation into a sustainable organisation, otherwise in his words there is no place for his company in a sustainable world. The best example of national sustainability that I know of is in Bhutan, where economic development is guided by their Gross National Happiness (GNH) project, which is remarkably similar to sustainability. GNH is the feature case study for this topic and measurement issues are discussed briefly below. 128 SOC10236 Applied Ethics and Sustainability Contemporary issues – Operationalising Gross National Happiness The following is an extract from a statement delivered by Dr Ronald Colemen at the inaugural session of the international conference, ‘Operationalizing Gross National Happiness’, organized by the Center of Bhutan Studies in Thimpu, Bhutan. Our Measures Reflect our Values Our goal at this gathering is not just to share our vision. It is to begin to put it into practice. In order to do so, we have to be specific about the basic requisites of an enlightened society and dare to say clearly what we mean by Gross National Happiness. What are our objectives? And how do we measure our progress in getting there? Every measure of progress, by definition, is based on values, because it raises the question ‘progress towards what?’ What we count and measure, therefore, reflects our deepest social values, and in turn determines the policy agendas of governments and other institutions. How do world leaders currently assess how ‘well off’ we are? Throughout the world, we currently measure our progress and gauge our wellbeing according to a very narrow set of materialist indicators – our economic growth rates, which in turn are based on measures of Gross National Product or Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The more we produce, sell, and buy, the more the GDP grows, and the ‘better off’ we are supposed to be – or so the conventional wisdom tells us. Yet vital social and environmental factors remain invisible in these measures. The more trees we cut down, the more fossil fuels we burn, and the faster we deplete our natural wealth, the faster the economy grows. This is poor accounting, like a factory owner who sells off his machinery and counts it as profit. Our growth rates also make no distinction between economic activity that creates benefit and that which causes harm. So long as money is being spent, the economy will grow. Crime, pollution, accidents, sickness, and natural disasters all expand the economy. The economy can grow even as inequality and poverty increase. At the same time, many of our most valuable assets, like generosity, volunteer work, unpaid caregiving, and our spiritual wealth are not counted at all, because no money changes hands. So economic growth does not necessarily mean we are better off. In fact, as Robert Kennedy said 30 years ago, Gross National Product measures ‘everything except that which makes life worthwhile.’ Fortunately, there is a better way forward, and the Kingdom of Bhutan is the nation to embrace it publicly by declaring openly that Bhutan is more interested in Gross National Happiness than Gross National Product. Pillars of human dignity What are the pillars of such an enlightened society based on human dignity, and what are the measures by which we can assess the health of a society and its progress towards Gross National Happiness? Respect and care for all beings First, the Buddhist and Shambhala teachings tell us that we are not, by nature, isolated, egoistic, and self-centred creatures, but rather that we are completely connected with and dependent on all other beings – an insight also increasingly appreciated by modern science. This understanding leads to the most profound appreciation of our environment and respect for our fellow beings and for all species. Because we know that our environment provides the life-support systems on which we depend, we do not recklessly plunder the natural world for our own short-term gain, but rather nurture and care for it, so that it may continue to sustain beings for generations to come. That same care and protection extends to the human realm. An enlightened society therefore respects all cultures, peoples, languages, and communities; treats them with equal dignity and complete tolerance; and finds it own strength in openness and diversity. Equity is a core principle of the Genuine Progress Index. Basic security To realise their full potential and their innate wisdom, human beings require basic security. If people live in fear and poverty and are overly afflicted by illness – if their lives are not free and well-favoured, and if they are tormented by the hell and hungry ghost realms – they cannot easily practice the Dharma. Some measure of basic security is essential to wellbeing. How do we measure that? Safe communities free from crime; a healthy population free from sickness; prosperous communities free from grinding poverty and hunger signify genuine progress. Education The attainment of true knowledge and wisdom for the benefit of all beings is the ultimate goal of the Buddhist and Shambhala teachings. Education in this sense does not merely refer to a set of curricula for the classroom or for job training. It includes a deep exploration and understanding of the way the world works – our minds, bodies, and the society and environment in which we live – and it involves great respect for the wisdom of our teachers, elders and traditions. Topic 12 A global sustainable society 129 Contemporary issues – Operationalising Gross National Happiness How do we measure that? Just as we described care for our environment as an investment in natural capital and in our natural wealth, so services and programs that foster true education are not just a ‘cost’ (as in most government ledgers) but a profound investment in human capital and in the future. Education is not only essential for human beings to achieve their full potential, both individually and collectively, but it is also key to dealing with the environmental, social, health, and economic challenges mentioned above, and to resolving conflicts in peaceful ways. A good education will promote respect for diversity and for other cultures, and will promote peaceful and mutually respectful relations between peoples holding widely divergent views. Nova Scotia’s new Genuine Progress Index or GPI assigns explicit value to environmental quality, our natural wealth, population health, livelihood security, equity, free time, and educational attainment. It values unpaid voluntary and household work as well as paid work. It counts sickness, crime and pollution as costs not gains to the economy. The GPI methods can help provide a more complete and accurate picture of how societies are really doing in ways that more accurately reflect humanity’s deepest values. Source: http://www.dharmamemphis.com/shambhala/tashi.html Case study – Gross National Happiness in Bhutan Bhutan is a small nation nestled between China and India in the Himalayas with a population somewhere between one and two million people, depending on which estimates you believe. Bhutan has abundant mineral resources and is possibly the only country in the world whose forests are actually increasing in area. During the 1980s the King of Bhutan declared Gross National Happiness as the national goal of Bhutan. He observed environmental and social degradation outside Bhutan where unrestrained economic growth led to collapse of local economies, widespread pollution, unemployment and other social problems such as crime and family breakdown. The King also recognised that Gross Domestic Product was a very crude measure of wellbeing, and he wanted a national goal which was appropriate for Bhutan’s rich, traditional culture based on the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism. Within this Buddhist worldview, humankind only exists in the context of our relationship with the other (people and the rest of the natural environment to which we are inextricably interconnected), and it’s this other that requires nurturing to enable a state of happiness. That is individual members of society can only flourish and live in happiness if society and the natural environment on which they depend also flourish. The conceptual foundations of GNH are preservation of culture; environmental conservation; good governance; and socio-economic development, which is similar to the social, cultural, environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability. The ethical basis of GNH is based on Buddhist teachings and includes living a simple and moderate life (the Middle Way), nonviolence, showing compassion and loving kindness toward others, and altruism (contributing to the wellbeing of others). The critical role of Buddhist values in the planning and implementation of GNH and their middle path approach to economic development in Bhutan is well recognised. If these values are critical to achieving GNH, we should ask how prevailing values in developed economies like Australia need to evolve to enable sustainability? c Film Watch the GNH video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CXJwNSkdTH0 k Case question What is a more appropriate national goal: Gross National Happiness or Gross Domestic Product? Why? SOC10236 Applied E 130 thics and Sustainability