6 Module 6: Diversity and Work-life
Balance
Introduction
This module is about the management of diversity and work life balance in the
workplace. It is about looking into human characteristics, seeing the values of
the differences, and searching for effective tools to best manage this factor of
diversity and work-life balance. The module is designed to explore some
positive strategies of diversity management, whilst also discuss the use of
some negative strategies such as anti-discrimination and equal employment
opportunity to enhance effectiveness of diversity management.
The evolutionary state experienced by organisations is reflective of evolution
in the community, the source of their employees. This module will look at
some changing characteristics of the workforce, with Australia as a context.
Also, the different ways by which to approach the managing of diversity will
be described, and their effectiveness examined.
There are distinct advantages for the organisation that recognises differences
of their people and capitalises the benefits of having a diverse workforce.
Additionally, encouragement of diversity management offers employees a
working environment that values and supports them because of their
differences, not despite them (Fastenau 2002, p. 684).
Objectives
On completion of this module you should be able to:
discuss main characteristics of changing workforce in the context of
Australian labour market
explore the concept of diversity at the workplace
discuss the ways by which diversity can be managed in the workplace
analyse the advantages of effective management of diversity.
Definition
Diversity management, the management of diversity, is defined in different
ways, from including only gender and ethnic groups, to including all
characteristics that make each individual unique.
Activity 6–1
Find the definitions of diversity and diversity management used by Kramar
et al. (2014, Ch. 9). Compare their definition to the definitions used by other
authors. Add these to your Glossary.
A good review article on workplace diversity:
Jonsen, K & Maznevski, ML et al. 2011, ‘Special review article: diversity
and it’s not so diverse literature: an international perspective’, International
Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 35.
You should note that some definitions focus on exploiting the differences for
the benefit of the organisation, whilst others consider the benefits of diversity
Textbook
Kramar et al. 2014
Ch. 9management for the individuals, as it can significantly enhance individual
employees quality of work-life. As you compare different definitions, you may
note the context to which the authors address the topic. Be very careful too
when you state the definition, you should clearly identify the context as the
base of your discussion.
Activity 6–2
Interview someone different from yourself in terms of race, sex, or age
group, ask him or her the following questions:
how should organisations manage their employees?
how does he or she perceive their job and work?
how do they define the concept of career?
how do they define ‘success’?
Compare their answers to yours. Are there any differences? How would
these differences impact on the way the workforce is managed?
Activity 6–3
Managing for Globalisation
Kramar et al. 2014, page 294
Changing workforce characteristics
There has been a fundamental shift in the Western world’s workforce. Most of
the pre-1980s workforce was white Anglo-Saxon men. Since then, minority
groups and women are growing in numbers and importance at the workplace,
and are anticipated to become the majority of future employees. In addition,
the workforce is aging. From 1983 to 2003, the proportion of people in the
Australian labour force aged 45 to 64 years increased from 24% to 32%
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004). The aging workforce is also a
phenomena across the most Western countries, including Japan. These have
posed some interesting challenges for HR managers. Below, a few statistics
from Australia are provided as background information, suggesting the need
for HRM to focus on managing diversity as derived from the changing
workforce pattern.
Multicultural workforce and multiple backgrounds
In 1995, the Industry Task Force paper (known as the Karpin Report) stated,
‘The scale of Australia’s multicultural human resources should not be underestimated’ (p. 233). The report indicated that approximately 23% of the
Australian population were either born in a non-English speaking country, or
had at least one parent from such a country. Workers from a non-English
speaking backgrounds made up about 15% of the total Australian workforce
(Industry Task Force 1995). In February 2001, approximately one third of the
workforce was not born in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001,
p. 37). Ethnic population within Australia now numbers about 4 million or
20% of the population (Gold Net Australia 2006). There is an increasingdemand for Australian managers to develop knowledge and understandings of
the cultural backgrounds of their staff, and to learn to use this knowledge and
understanding to manage employees effectively.
The learning and developing of better understanding of another culture serves
two prime purposes—to better manage those from that culture, for the
advantage of both management and employees; and to gain insights that one
may translate for generic use. Apart from the universal recognition of the
benefits gained from effective cross-cultural management, the latter benefit
tends to be ignored. And little or no thought has been given to the generic use
of individual cultural practices that could benefit organisations. For example,
the Australian aboriginal people are themselves multicultural, with more than
200 traditional languages (Davidson & Griffin 2000, p. 150), they share some
generic philosophies of management that business organisations could adopt to
advantage.
Activity 6–4
Research those characteristics of the aboriginal culture or a culture of your
choice that are relevant and could be useful in HRM practice.
Learning and teaching philosophies and methodologies
Loyalty and trust
Communication—methods, meanings, listening, sharing
Conflict resolution and commitment to outcomes
Respect and friendship
Beliefs, customs, laws, religion
Use and value of artefacts.
If you are a student living in a country other than Australia, you can adapt
this activity by considering how these characteristics could be used to
advantage in the business organisations within your country.
Activity 6–5
You are encouraged to look at the ANZ Bank and Woolworths’ website
which has a section on their diversity management program. In addition, you
may explore another few company’s websites and compare common traits,
differences, any issues you see and so forth.
Women in the workforce
There has been significant growth in employment, and increased participation
in the labour force over the last 50 years, particularly for women. Women's
participation in the labour force in August 2011 is 59%, almost double that of
August 1961 (34%). Changing social attitudes, the availability of safe
contraception and planned parenting, as well as adequate child care facilities
have all helped to allow women to continue their careers. The growth in
availability of part-time work has helped too.
In August 1966, labour force participation for women reduced dramaticallyduring the prime child raising years (20–24 and 25–34 year age groups), with
the majority of women never to return to the labour force. In contrast, although
a relatively slight ‘nappy valley’ effect can be seen between the ages 20–54,
labour force participation in August 2011 is still a lot higher than it was and
remains relatively unaffected by age from 20–54.
Extracted from the Australian Bereure of Statistics website:
(http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/6105.0Feature+Article1Oct%2020
11)
Women can switch among multiple tasks, whereas men tend to be single
focused and linear (United Nations Development Programme 1995, p. 90).
Research indicated that female business owners stress intuitive thinking,
creativity, sensitivity, and personal values, and male business owners stress
focused thinking, methodical processing of information, and concrete analysis
of data (National Foundation for Women Business Owners 1996, p. 4).
The mere existence of men’s need for rank and power helps to perpetuate the
status quo. Obviously, the sharing of rank and power with others is a
contradiction in itself. Given the research noted above, women are unlikely to
attain them for their own sake anyway. However, in male dominated
organisational cultures, the ambitious must acquire power, if they wish to
achieve their own ends. Under such circumstances, the male characteristics of
control and assertiveness would be used as tools to retain these values, which
are also reinforced by both organisational and national cultures, for those of
their own gender. Thus women who need the power that is necessary to be
successful must fight for it by men’s rules and on their territory. Researchers
have suggested that those women who have been successful in Australian
organisations have had to develop specific strategies to do so, including
becoming ‘more masculine than the men’ (Zanetic & Jeffery 1997). Others
have left larger organisations and started small businesses of their own.
Women establish small businesses at three to four times the rate of men, and
more likely to be more successful than men (National Foundation for Women
Business Owners 1996; Zanetic & Jeffery 1997, p. 13).
The aging work force
The workforce is aging as mentioned earlier. As a consequence of improving
medical knowledge, people are living longer, and enjoying working as well as
quality of life into their later life. Those who are approaching traditional
retirement age tend to remain in the workforce. We found in the Australian
context that middle-aged people want job security, continued advancement,
and status. They also desire challenge and interesting work. Increasingly
organisations are facing the challenge of meeting the needs of this group of the
workforce.Activity 6–6
Managing an ageing workforce
Kramar et al. 2014, page 307
Discuss the question:
- Discuss the actions employers could undertake to manage mature workers
more effectively.
- Discuss the influence of unconscious bias on the employment of mature
workers.
The idea here would be to get some debate on the quality of return. Isn’t it?
You could play two roles, one of arguing about the importance of doing so
and tapping into the benefits of ageing workers and the other role taking the
position that they are more likely to retire and thus the return on investment
will be minimal compared to a younger employee.
Activity 6–7
Please read the following article:
McKinnon, R 2010, ‘An ageing workforce and strategic human resource
management: staffing challenges for social security administrations’,
International Social Security Review, vol. 63, no. 23, pp. 3–4.
Managing work-life balance
Traditionally, the management of difference in the Australian workplace has
been based on strategies of exclusion and assimilation. People have been
included or excluded on the basis of different identity. Those who were not the
same as the dominant majority were forced to assimilate by meeting rules and
regulations laid down by the majority. Organisational cultures reflected the
values, morals and norms of the dominant majority group, and practices and
policies were incorporated to support those values. With the changing
workforce characteristics, organisations can no longer operate effectively
according to the traditional rules and regulations. They must take into account
different employees’ needs.
The multicultural workforce looks to the workplace to find meaning and
identity. There is a need to introduce concepts such as work-life balance and
encouragement of individuals to express, rather than suppress their identities
and roles they have outside the organisations (e.g., caretakers for elderly
parents, community volunteers etc.).
Work-life balance is especially important to women who perform a demanding
dual role as workers and mothers (not to leave out men who also perform a
dual role as workers and fathers). Hence, it is important to allow at the
workplace a proper negotiation for flexible working hours, flexible working
location and flexible rewards for employees with family and community
responsibilities.
Textbook
Kramar et al. 2014
Ch. 9Older workers have different needs from those presented by Generation X.
Organisations that intend to maximise human capital across all generations
should develop strategies that could accommodate both older and younger
workers so that they are neither isolated nor imposed with obligations. In
particular, older people should be allowed to work according to their capacity.
While the research has found that a well-implemented aging strategy
improves morale, teamwork, cooperation and productivity, it also cautions
against policy approaches that are not carefully framed to avoid stigmatisation
of older workers.
(De Cieri et al. 2005, ‘Age Discrimination—the New Sexism’, p. 93)
Meanwhile, Generation X has moved into the workforce. But there are
contradictions that require resolution. The Generation X is the children born of
families who have struggled with the dichotomy of dual incomes and careers
within the inflexible working environment of the late twentieth century, and
they have been raised in an increasingly culturally diverse world (Macalister
1994). Like it or not, they are entering the workforce with different
expectations and wants.
A survey of college students in the United States shows that Generation X
‘appear to be alive with idealism, optimism, and a vision of a better world’
(Light 1998, p. 13). They expressed a strong desire for committed co-workers
and for work that helps others. These needs translate into a culture that values
teamwork and shared responsibility, and organisations to have a keen sense of
responsibility to the community.
These young people seek opportunities for learning, and thus are attracted to
organisations that are committed to human resource development (HRD).
Also, they are conscious of the work/family balance. Although they are hungry
for money and opportunity for advancement, they have a strong commitment
to family (Light 1998, p. 13). Therefore, those HR recruiters who can offer
flexible working arrangements or similar work-life balance programs are
likely to be competitive in attracting this generation.
Activity 6–8
Please read the following article:
Fujimoto, Y 2011, ‘The experience of Asian expatriates in Australia’,
Journal of doing business across borders, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 24–32.
Syed, J & Pio, E 2010, ‘Veiled diversity? Workplace experiences of Muslim
women in Australia’, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, vol. 27, no. 1,
pp. 115–137.Activity 6–9
Indigenous employment: an important part of diversity
management
Kramar et al. 2014, page 310
Discuss the two questions:
- Discuss Bob Geldol’s statement that Australia was ‘economically stupid’
for importing labour from overseas.
- Discuss some of the challenges for HRM practitioners when engaging
Indigenous workers.
Challenge to HR managers
The more diverse workforce includes individuals who are less tolerant of
interpersonal weaknesses of their superiors. With improved knowledge in
behaviour science, and employee rights legislation, subordinates expect their
supervisors to be interpersonally competent.
It was not long ago when an individual’s family, hometown and church (or
other religious group) played vital roles as sources of community and wellbeing. But, this is not longer so. Families are splintered by divorces, older
children move away from the family home, and members of the extended
family live far away. Few people have the time to join committees working for
their community, or socialise or even know their neighbours. Few attend
church or religious gathering on a regular basis. The result is that individuals
link with the only community of which they are members—the workplace.
Thus people bring their needs for family, community involvement, and
spiritual meaning to the organisation. Although this may seem to be an unfair
demand on the organisation, moves towards the meetings of these needs can
impact on its productivity, and to the quality of work-life of its employees. On
the other hand, the lack of loyalty exhibited by employees of many
organisations reflects the deep resentment felt toward organisations that
provide little meaning to community.
Different types of discrimination
There are three types of discrimination.
1. Direct discrimination
occurs when a decision or action or one person or group excludes another
person or group from a benefit or opportunity or significantly reduces their
chances of obtaining a benefit or opportunity because a personal characteristic
irrelevant to the situation is applied as a barrier.
(Fastenau 2002, p. 705).
Often, stereotyping is the basis of direct discrimination, as the individual is
seen to belong to a particular group and assumptions about an individual
are made on the basis that all members of that group exhibit that particular
characteristic.
Outcomes signify direct discrimination. For example, all of anorganisation’s employees are men, yet half the job applicants are women,
with comparable knowledge, skills and abilities. Although there may be no
overt discriminatory comments or behaviours, this situation suggests that
the organisation is discriminating against women.
This example could be an instance of ‘homosocial reproduction’ described
by Kramar et al. (2014). An individual or a group of people feel most
comfortable working with those who are like themselves, particularly of
like gender, race or ethnicity. Therefore, they make selection decisions that
favour those who are of the same gender, race or ethnicity to themselves.
Thus they replicate themselves in their staff.
2. Indirect discrimination is said to have occurred if practices, policies and/or
procedures that may appear to be non-discriminatory, but have adverse
outcomes for members of a particular group which reduce that group
members’ employment opportunities.
For example, some years ago some police forces, including Victoria State
Police, set a minimum height requirement for recruits. Whilst this may
appear to be neutral, as every applicant was subject to it, it eliminated most
women, and many men of some ethnic groups. Should height be a
legitimate factor in job performance its inclusion in the selection criteria
would not be deemed discriminatory. However, it has been found that
height is not a relevant factor in how well a person performs in the police
force. Therefore, its inclusion is discriminatory.
3. Structural, or systematic, discrimination is a long-term consequence of
ongoing direct and indirect discriminatory practices that have impacted on
decisions, regulations, policies, practices, actions and attitudes. This type
of discrimination becomes deeply embedded within all levels of
organisations and societies.
For example, nearly all industries, even those that are female-dominated,
are characterised by a gender-based occupational segregation of the work
force. This means that secretaries, nurses and kindergarten teachers are
more likely to be women, and engineers and road maintenance workers are
more likely to be men. It also means that male nurses and teachers are
more likely to become managers and leaders than females, even though
they are outnumbered by many more women. Structural or systematic
discrimination can be difficult to determine and even harder to address as
it is so deeply embedded in the system.
Think about: How do we address such deeply embedded system of
discrimination?
Different approaches to managing diversity
Legislative approaches
One of the ways by which diversity can be managed is by adherence to the
laws of equal employment opportunity (EEO) as we discussed in Module 4.
This requires the organisation to not discriminate against personnel on grounds
stipulated by law if they are not relevant to the employment situation.
Organisations are likely to pay a high price for discriminatory practices. In
those countries in which EEO is a legal requirement, litigation has its indirect
as well as direct costs, and the subsequent bad publicity tarnishes the
organisation’s name, both in its commercial market place, and as an employer.Irrespective of the legal process, discrimination is an unfair practice, and will
be perceived as such by employees. This will result in low morale and a
negative culture with anti-management sentiments, which will impact on firm
performance.
The equal opportunity and anti-discrimination approach is based on the
premise that treating everyone the same will result in equal outcomes. It
addresses direct discrimination. However, people are not the same. Each
person is unique. Each person has different talents and abilities, and shortcomings and tolerances. Each has different needs. Therefore treating everyone
in the same way will result in different opportunities. Equality is not the same
as equitability. For each person to actually experience equal opportunity each
should be given different opportunities that are tailored with individual
differences. Use of Affirmative Action is one way to address the issue of
equity, with an aim to reduce indirect and systematic discrimination (see
Module 4 again).
Diversity approaches
Whilst the concept of diversity management can be just an extension of EEO
and affirmative action, it can be much more than this. It is not compliance with
legal requirements, nor is it just about being fair. Rather, it is a fundamental
management philosophy.
The principle of ‘equal opportunity’ as it is defined by law, is that if all people
are treated in the same way, they will be equal. This is based on the
assumption that we are all the same. But we are not all the same. Therefore,
for us all to experience equal opportunities we should be given different
opportunities, to accommodate our differences.
Affirmative action does attempt to address the inequality of equal opportunity,
but only by the recognition of the difference of the group it singles out. For
example, the Australian affirmative action law recognises that women have
been disadvantaged in past employment decisions, but this is the limit of its
recognition.
The belief on which diversity management is based is that many employees
have characteristics that are different from the ‘average’. Therefore, to provide
equal opportunity to all, these differences have to be recognised, and then
considered and accommodated in the employment relationship.
In addition, the organisation can benefit by using these differences in a number
of ways.
Staff management practices can be improved as further and deeper
understandings are reached.
Efficiency and safety can be enhanced as workplace and work practices are
performed differently. For example, as women are unable to lift the weight
men can, they have developed other ways by which to move heavy objects.
By adopting these ways for all workers, the occupational health and safety of
the workplace is improved.
As a portion of the organisation’s customers are likely to exhibit and
experience the same differences as those of employees, the organisation can
use employees’ knowledge to make products and services more appropriate
and accessible for its customers.
Employees can help identify new products, services and markets.(Fastenau 2002)
The use of diversity approaches encompasses more than the recognition and
incorporation of those characteristics that are different. It is all-inclusive,
including the similarities as well as the differences. For example, should an
organisation provide benefits for parents of dependent children, it should also
consider and manage the feelings and needs of those who do not have
dependent children.
Effective diversity management
Effective diversity management is not just a matter of recognising the obvious,
such as ethnic backgrounds. It is managing the cognitive aspect as well, by
increasing tolerance for diversity of viewpoints. One outcome of the increase
in individualism and decreased power distance in some cultures is that
employees no longer meekly obey the instructions and demands of the
organisation. They feel greater freedom to disagree and reject instruction if it
does not fit their expectations. Also, as the diversification of ethnic mix of the
workforce increases, the shared views, or norms, have become fragmented, as
work groups are composed of individuals who do not share a common cultural
upbringing. Thus managing diversity includes the development and
maintenance of strategies to increase the tolerance of others’ views.
Diversity management includes managing a process whereby all employees
are involved in the evolution of their workplace culture, thereby using those
differences for the benefit of both organisation and employees.
Rhetoric v. reality
As discussed earlier, individuals look to the work place to find meaning and
identity. Rhetoric has connected with these needs, and encouraged free
expression of employees identity and roles outside the organisations.
However, in reality, organisations’ policies tend to imply that employees
should only bring to work those parts that are necessary to do the job, but that
those parts of themselves that are not directly relevant to the job should be left
at the door.
Those qualities to be left outside are what make employees different from the
majority. Therefore, if individuals are to be content and be whole people,
Charles Handy (author of books The age of unreason, the age of paradox, and
The gods of management) believes that individuals must look beyond the
organisation to find meaning and identity (Ettorre 1996).
Discussion on this issue cannot be complete without considering the possible
paradox created by the pursuit of the person-organisation fit and the pursuit of
diversity. In support of diversity, it can be argued that ideal personorganisation fit is not in the best interests of the organisation. It does not
forward the growth of the organisation, or assist it to maintain an adequate fit
with its environment (of which its people are representational), or feed its
innovation and creativity, which are nurtured by its diversity. However, for
that person’s potential for contribution to be used, sufficient personorganisation fit must be recognised. But, is this not the very essence of good
diversity management?Activity 6–10
Access two journal articles and other materials on the topic of diversity
management. Using the material you have accessed, discuss the statement:
‘is diversity management also exploitative?’
The future
As the workforce becomes more diverse, so does the range of abilities,
attitudes and values, perceptions and perspectives. Whilst this diversification
makes the management of human resources more complex, it also enlarges the
pool of potential by which the organisation can be more competitive.
However, to convert this potential, organisations need to devise the means by
which to harness it.
The increasing cultural diversity of the Australian population brings diverse
attitudes and ideas to the workplace. With the more open minds of the younger
generations, who have been raised in a more diverse community, these
differences will be more readily accepted, and used by organisations of the
future. Ideally, this diversity should place Australian organisations in a
superior position to access and tap global markets, as well as having different
management philosophies and techniques on offer. Can we leverage our
diverse workforce more effectively?
Summary
Reflective of the population, the Australian workforce is becoming
increasingly diverse. These different employees have different needs and
expectations. Furthermore, today’s employees have the expectation that their
managers are interpersonally competent. The above discussion focused on age,
multiculturalism, and gender. Managed appropriately, each can be a rich
source of KSAs, thinking, creativity, and problem-solving.
There are three ways by which the managing of diversity can be approached.
EEO and affirmative action are two legislative approaches, which assumes that
all people are the same, or recognise that some groups of personnel are
historically, indirectly and systematic disadvantaged. The diversity
management approach not only recognises the differences but celebrates the
differences, capitalising on them for the advantage of the organisation and the
individual.Review questions
Review question 6–1
Define diversity and diversity management.
Review question 6–2
Define direct discrimination.
Review question 6–3
What is homosocial reproduction?
Review question 6–4
What are the three ways by which differences in the workplace can be
managed?
Review question 6–5
Discuss the advantages of effective diversity management.
References
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001, Labour force survey, 2001,
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
Davidson, P & Griffin, RW 2000, Management, Australian in a global
context, John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane.
De Cieri, H, Kramar, R, Noe, RA, Hollenbeck, JR, Gerhart, B & Wright, PM
2005, Human resource management in Australia: strategy people
performance, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston.
Ettorre, B 1996, ‘A conversation with Charles Handy: On the future of work
and an end to the “Century of the Organization”’, Organizational Dynamics,
vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 15–26.
Fastenau, M 2002, in RJ Stone, Human resource management, 4th edn. John
Wiley and Sons, Brisbane.
Fisher, H 1999, The first sex, Random House, Sydney.
Fujimoto, Y 2011, ‘The experience of Asian expatriates in Australia’, Journal
of doing business across borders, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 24–32.
Gold Net Australia 2006, About Australia, access 14 October 2011,
http://www.gold-net.com.au/about1.html#de
Goward, P 2002, ‘Tomorrow today—21st century solutions’, access
30 Oct. 06, http://www.hreoc.gov.au/speeches/sex_discrim/tomorrow.html
Industry Task Force 1995, Enterprising nation—report of the industry task
force on leadership and management skills, Commonwealth of Australia,
Canberra.
Jonsen, K., M. L. Maznevski, et al. 2011, ‘Special Review Article: Diversityand its not so diverse literature: An international perspective’, International
Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 35.
Kohlberg, L 1981, The psychology of moral development, Harper & Row, San
Francisco.
Kramar, R, Bartram, T, Ceiri, HD, Noe, RA, Heooenbeck, JR, Gerhart, B &
Wright, RM 2014, Human Resources Management, McGraw-Hill, Sydney,
NSW.
Light, DA 1998, ‘Briefings from the editors—human resources—recruiting
generation 2001’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 13–14.
Macalister, K 1994, ‘The X generation’, HR Magazine, May, pp. 66–69.
McCorduck, P & Ramsey, N. 1996, The futures of women: scenarios for the
21st century. Addison-Wesley, New York.
McKinnon, R 2010, ‘An ageing workforce and strategic human resource
management: staffing challenges for social security administrations’,
International Social Security Review, vol. 63, no. 23, pp. 3–4.
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115–137.
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1995, Oxford University, New York.
Zanetic, S & Jeffery, C 1997, ‘Diversity—understanding the other half of the
workforce’, HR Monthly, May.
Glossary
Direct discrimination—refers to those decisions or actions by one person or
group that exclude another person or group from a benefit or opportunity they
would otherwise obtain without exclusion.
Diversity management—is a process of management built on a set of values
that recognise the differences between people as a potential strength to
organisations.
Homosocial reproduction—refers to an individual or a group of people who
feel most comfortable working with those who are like themselves,
particularly of like gender, race or ethnicity. Therefore, they make selection
decisions that favour those who are of the same gender, race or ethnicity to
themselves.
Indirect discrimination—occurs when practices, policies and/or procedures
that may appear to be non-discriminatory have adverse outcomes for members
of a particular group which reduce that group members’ employmentopportunities.
Further readings
Bennington, L & Wein, R 2000, ‘Anti-discrimination legislation in Australia:
fair, effective, efficient or irrelevant?’ International Journal of Manpower,
vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 21–33.
Bertone, S & Leahy, M 2003, ‘Multiculturalism as a conservative ideology:
impacts on workforce diversity’, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources,
vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 101–115.
De Cesare, J & Sadri, G 2003, ‘Do all carrots look the same? Examining the
impact of culture on employee motivation’, Management Research News,
vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 29–40.
D’Netto, B & Sohal, AS 1999, ‘Human resource practices and workforce
diversity: an empirical assessment,’ International Journal of Manpower,
vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 530–547.
Meulders, D, Plasman, R & Rycx 2004, ‘Introduction. earnings inequalities:
gender, race and sexual orientation’, International Journal of Manpower,
vol. 25, pp. 244–250.