7 Module 7: The analysis and
design of work
Introduction
This chapter discusses the analysis and design of work and, in doing so, lays
out some considerations that go into making informed decisions about how to
create and link jobs. The chapter is divided into four sections, the first of
which deals with ‘big-picture’ issues related to work-flow analysis and
organisational structure. The following two sections deal with more specific,
lower-level issues related to job analysis and job design. The final section
brings together organisational structure, job analysis and job design by
considering a contemporary approach to the management of human capital in
various employment modes.
In Module 2, the importance of strategic HRM is discussed. One of the first
tasks of HR strategy implementation is to ascertain the tasks to be performed
and design the jobs relevant to achieving organisational goals. Innovative
ways by which to harness human resources are needed to give organisations a
competitive edge.
Job analysis and design is the basis of all other HRM activities.
This module commences with an overview of organisational structure, which
is the starting point of job analysis and design. Various methods to job
analysis, job design and redesign are introduced. The module also examines
the factors that impact on job analysis and design. These factors include
potential discrimination and aspects relating to workplace and occupational
health and safety. Group work and intrinsic motivation are also considered.
Objectives
On completion of this module you should be able to:
Analyse a work-flow process, identifying the output, activities and inputs
in the production of a product or service.
Understand the importance of job analysis in human resource
management.
Choose the right job analysis technique for a variety of human resource
activities.
Identify the tasks performed and the skills required in a given job.
Understand the different approaches to job design.
Comprehend the trade-offs among the various approaches to designing
jobs.
Identify approaches to the management of human capital in various
employment modes.
Organisational structure and design
Organisational structure and design influence job analysis and design. Hence,
it is important to have an overall understanding of what is organisational
structure and design, and what are some key factors affecting on organisational
design before conducting job analysis and job design.Organisational structure and workflow analysis
The purpose of organising is to achieve objectives by the efficient use of
available resources. Most of society's goals are achieved by the combined
effort of individuals in organisations. An organisation is a number of people in
an arrangement created to achieve a number of goals (Daft 2007). These goals
are achieved by people-to-people and people-to-work relationships. The
organisational structure determines and coordinates these relationships for the
work to be carried out effectively and efficiently. Structure is the framework
of jobs, of the relationships among jobs, and the operational systems and
processes that an organisation uses to carry out its strategy. Structure is the
means by which an organisation accomplishes its goals (Robbins & Barnwell
2002).
The analysis and design of work is one of the most important components in
developing and maintaining a competitive advantage. Strategy implementation
is virtually impossible without thorough attention devoted to work-flow
analysis, job analysis and job design. Managers need to understand the entire
work-flow process in their work unit to ensure that the process maximises
efficiency and effectiveness. To understand this process, managers must also
have clear, detailed information about the jobs that exist in the work unit. The
way to gain this information is through the job analysis process. Equipped
with an understanding of the work-flow process and the existing job, such jobs
can be redesigned and configurations of HR practices can be developed. This
should ensure that the work unit is able to achieve its goals while individuals
within the unit benefit from the various work-outcome dimensions such as
motivation, satisfaction, safety, health and achievement. The work context and
types of jobs performed have changed dramatically in recent years (Kramar et
al. 2011).
For this process to be efficient, all parts of the organisation need to interrelate
effectively, achieving the organisational objectives with no duplication of
effort. This requires the organising of work activities. That is, identifying what
work needs to be done, dividing that work among units and individuals, and
then coordinating the divided efforts so the goals can be accomplished. Thus
an organisation structure is the set of relationships among divisions,
departments, and managing positions.
There are three elements that are involved in these relationships:
1. authority/power—the right to influence others
2. responsibility—the obligation to perform
3. accountability—the obligation to report back, that is, to report back the
outcomes of the responsibilities undertaken (Robbins & Barnwell 2002).
Think about: If a manager delegates the responsibility of completing a task to
a group of employees, does s/he ‘pass’ the responsibility onto that group,
thereby absolving herself or himself of that responsibility? Who is responsible
for the success, or failure? Who should be held accountable? To whom?
Textbook
Kramar et al. 2014
Ch. 6Activity 7–1
Gen Y at workplace
Audio-visual sources
The following videos available on YouTube would be well worth watching
and can act as excellent discussion points on the different generations. What
is interesting is that there are some significant differences between ideas and
opinions.
1. Video Title: ‘What Motivates Gen Y and Boomer Talent’ (uploaded by
HarvardBusiness), 9.38 mins, available from:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVHnug8H1MM&feature=related.
This video discusses the preference of Gen Y and baby boomers for
non-financial incentives.
2. Video Title: ‘Managing Generation Y’ (uploaded by HarvardBusiness),
9.52 mins, available from:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDAdaaupMno&feature=relmfu. This video
discusses how Gen Y should/want to be managed.
Organisational design
Organisational design is the process by which managers design the formal
organisation structure to ensure that work activities are coordinated to achieve
the organisation's goals (Daft 2007).
The step of coordination is about fusing together of the departmental units and
relationships in such a way that the resultant structure operates effectively and
efficiently as the organisation sets about achieving its goals and objectives.
When an organisation grows, corresponding changes to its structure need to
occur. A change of senior management may initiate change to the structure to
accommodate the different philosophy of the new management. A change in
strategic direction or emphasis may precipitate organisational redesign to align
the structure with these changes.
Changes in the external environment, most of which the organisation cannot
control, can also substantially influence the operations of the organisation. For
the organisation to retain its competitive edge, it must be placed in the best
possible position to continue to achieve its strategic goals, whilst making the
necessary shifts to retain the best fit with its environment. If the structure is
not suited to implementing its strategic intent and well aligned with the
environment, restructuring is required.
Common types of organisational structure
There are several types of structure adopted by contemporary organisations
(see Kramar et al. 2014, chap. 6 also Daft 2007).
Functional structure
A functional structure groups jobs and departments on the basis of the
functions they perform. Typical functions include finance, marketing,operations and human resource management. Because it is the simplest and
easiest to coordinate, most small and new businesses adopt this structure. It is
the most common form and is particularly suitable in stable environments.
Divisional structure
A divisional structure groups jobs and departments by individual products or
product families, service, or market. Most universities are divisional
structured, each faculty producing a different product family, for example, the
medical faculty produces doctors and nurses, and the engineering faculty
produces engineers.
Hybrid structure
Few organisations adopt a functional or divisional structure in its pure form.
Many combine some characteristics of each and form a hybrid structure,
thereby allowing different needs to be met.
Matrix structure
This type of structure seeks the benefits of both functional and the product
form of divisional structures. A matrix is formed by organisational members
being responsible to a functional manager on the vertical hierarchy and also to
a product manager on the horizontal hierarchy. Thus an individual is
accountable to two managers. Whilst this is contrary to the unity of command,
it has been found to be effective. It is the basis on which committees, teams
and working parties operate, as each member is accountable to the manager of
his/her department or specialised area, and to the chairperson or leader of the
committee, team or working party.
Contingency factors of organisational design
The approach to determine what type (s) of structure should be adopted by an
organisation is organisational design. Yet, a number of contingency factors,
such as strategy, size, years of establishment, culture, technology and
environment must be taken into consideration in organisational design.
An appropriate organisation structure should allow jobs to be placed so as to
directly achieve the organisation's objectives, and to enable those who hold
jobs to be motivated and perform efficiently. Structure should provide for an
effective communication flow, and an appropriate designation of authority so
that managers can make decisions as required.
The organisation's structure must be appropriately designed to be able to
respond to the adjustments made by managers as they endeavour to retain
alignment with its environment. As organisational environments differ, so will
organisations have different requirements of structure. For example, some
structures are more suited to stable environments, whilst others are more suited
to volatile unstable environments as they are more flexible and readily
changed (Daft 2007).
Clearly, organisational restructure is not just a matter of shifting boxes on an
organisational chart. Instead, the aim of restructuring is that structures should
support, facilitate and enhance optimum organisational performance.Activity 7–2
Choose an organisation to which you are familiar. Evaluate its structure.
How does its structure support and enhance organisational performance?
Do you really see a structure (as in a skeleton) or people and jobs they do
within the structure that help achieve organisational goals?
Flexibility and innovation
Creativity is the generating of new ideas, whereas innovation is the
translating of ideas into new products, services, or methods of production.
However, the skills required to generate ideas are not the same as those needed
to realise it. Therefore, to make full use of new ideas an organisation needs
both creative and innovative people. After all, creativity on its own makes no
contribution; it needs to have practical value and usefulness. Thus it must be
effectively translated.
An organisation needs to do more to make innovation one of its key operating
objectives for innovation to occur. Creative and innovative people have
particular needs for a flexible environment. The ideal climate for innovation is
one of welcoming and accommodating change. After all, innovation is about
change. Flexibility of communication, controls and interaction among
personnel are vital. It is the current trend for large organisations to attempt to
capture the greater structural flexibility of smaller ones. They are striving for
stronger lateral communication networks and cross-functional teams and task
forces. Organisations are also reorganising to create smaller divisions in which
new ventures can be explored within a flexible environment.
Think about: How does this desire for flexibility and creation of an innovative
organisational culture affect organisational design?
Job design
Job design is about structuring of jobs as they ideally should be performed. Job
design specifies the boundaries of the job by specifying
the range of tasks
the demands on the incumbent
the amount of authority (that is, the right to command or compel those
under the incumbent to perform) required
the level of responsibility (the obligation to perform assigned tasks,
functions, or assignments)
accountability
the relationship to other jobs, horizontally and vertically
organisation and department/section ‘fit’ (Renkly 2004).Activity 7–3
A recent article on job design by
Holman, D & Totterdell, P et al. 2011, ‘Job design and the employee
innovation process: the mediating role of learning strategies’, Journal of
Business and Psychology, pp. 1–15.
Job specialisation
Taylor, the father of scientific management, sought to determine how jobs
could be designed to maximise output by developing the concept of ‘one best
way’ of performing each task, based on observation, measurement and
analysis of work methods. Taylor advocated prescribed selection techniques to
determine the best person to do each job, and specified training programs for
workers in the prescribed best method (Shafritz et al. 2005, pp. 61–72). Prior
to Taylor, selection was ad hoc and training was ‘on the job’. Thus he
developed the concept on which today's selection techniques and training
programs are based.
Furthermore, Taylor introduced monetary techniques for motivating workers
and recommended the setting of piece rates, whereby the worker was paid
more for work done beyond the standard rate (Shafritz et al. 2005). By so
doing, he made that important link between performance, money and the
setting of goals.
The aim of specialisation, that is, working on a narrow range of tasks, is to
increase productivity by the higher level of expertise, speed, understanding
and proficiency in that one or narrow range of tasks. Specialisation makes the
matching of people to tasks easier as the required skills and knowledge are
specific and narrow (Kramar et al. 2014). Training is reduced for the same
reason. Complexity of operations is lessened as the actions of each worker are
limited in scope.
However, the limited scope of the job can negatively impact on motivation and
job satisfaction, which result in boredom and concentration difficulties.
Therefore, job design decisions need to weigh up the advantages of
specialisation against the influences that job configuration has on employee
motivation.
Where tasks are simple, for example, on a simple assembly line, and where
specialisation may be problematic, there are alternatives to specialisation (see
Kramar et al. 2014).
Job rotation is the systematic moving of workers from one simple task to
another. Workers rotate among comparable jobs on the same level, enabling
them to learn and develop new skills. Job rotation can be used to broaden
people's understanding of jobs performed by others which may assist in
understanding the needs and pressures of peers (Kramar et al. 2014).
Job enlargement increases the number of tasks in a job. Often these are tasks
that were previously performed before and/or after the original job. This
increases the job scope (Kramar et al. 2014). However, as questioned by
Frederick Herzberg, ‘Why should a worker become motivated when one or
more ‘meaningless’ tasks are added to previously existing ones, or when workassignments are rotated among equally ‘meaningless’ tasks?’ (Herzberg 1968,
p. 59).
Job enrichment changes the job to include more activities and more
discretion of how to do them. The worker has more responsibility by way of
planning and controlling of the work, thus not only expanding job scope, but
also job depth (Kramar et al. 2011). Therefore, whilst job enlargement is said
to be loading the job horizontally, as it adds tasks that are on the same level as
the original, job enrichment loads the job vertically. The purpose of job
enrichment is to provide the worker with a greater sense of achievement,
recognition, responsibility, and personal growth. In so doing, the worker will
experience a higher quality of work-life, be more highly motivated and thus
more productive (Kramar et al. 2014).
As organisational design impacts upon individual job designs, job designs
characterising enrichment principles are more likely to be found in
organisations that are organic in design. Organisations with mechanistic
designs are highly formalised, with emphasis on job rules, regulations, and
schedules (Daft 2007). They have low job variety and little depth. This
standardisation minimises ambiguity and confusion, and maximises stability
and predictability. On the other hand, those of organic designs encourage job
autonomy and jobs are relatively high in job depth and scope. Organic
organisations have low complexity and formalisation, with minimum rules and
regulations. Their loose structures enable them to change rapidly and
maximise creative opportunities. Organic structures suit organisations that
employ professionals who have technical proficiency and competent to handle
diverse problems (Daft 2007).
Activity 7–4
For organic structures to be flexible and capable of rapid change they must
have flat structures, with minimal distance between points of input,
production, and customer. This has negative consequences for reward and
career. There are few promotion opportunities and there is a danger of work
overload. Yet to achieve their objectives, these organisations depend on a
high level of commitment, trust, and shared vision, because their values are
not specifically articulated.
What strategies would you adopt to attempt to resolve this paradox?
Factors influencing job design
There are several factors that could impact on better design of a job. These are:
task structure
implications of work groups
intrinsic motivation
equal opportunity
occupational health and safety (OHS).
These factors also influence the choice of the approaches used in job design
(see Kramar et al. 2014, chap. 6).Task structure
Once the objectives of the particular job have been established, there is a need
to structure the tasks related to the job. The best way to task structure is to ask
the following questions, and the answers would lead to better job design:
how the work will be performed
how the required resources will be obtained
how the output, quality, costs and time standards will be monitored against
the objectives.
Activity 7–5
Please read the article that sets out some restructuring of senior and middle
management in Telstra is ‘Telstra to cut 10% of senior, middle
management’ by Petroc Wilton, 23 July 2010,
www.telcoblue.com.au/news/telstra-to-cut-10-of-senior-middle-management/story-
481
Implications of work groups
Today’s organisations have flatter structures with fewer layers of management
than yesterday’s bureaucracies (Murray et al. 2006). Many decisions are made
and work is performed by groups or teams. The groups are usually selected for
their specific knowledge and skills, so that the group as a collective has the
expertise appropriate for its task. Frequently, this requirement means that
people from several different parts of the organisation are used, which has
implications for job design. Good job design reflects the contribution made by
these groups recognised within the organisation’s structure.
Group membership places the members in very different relationships from
those of conventional structures with different authority, responsibility and
accountability. If the particular group is a task force, established to achieve a
particular goal within a specified time frame, the relationships will only last
for the life of that task force, then different relationships will be formed as
members move onto other groups and tasks. Consequently, the job
descriptions and organisational structures need to be flexible, to accommodate
this evolving state.
Not all work groups work satisfactorily and achieve their goals. As the
diversity of employees increases, members join work groups with increasingly
diverse attitudes, expectations, and communication criteria. It is inevitable that
conflict could occur. Negative conflict can be diverted by skilled management
of the group, education of the members in understanding these differences and
using them to advantage for the group. Thus, group work requires specific
skills and attitudes. These should be included in job specifications (see further
discussion on this under ‘Job Analysis’).Activity 7–6
Write a list of the skills and attitudes you believe are required for a good
work-group participant.
Intrinsic motivation
People are not the same as other resources required by the organisation.
Frequently, job design ascertains the skills needed to perform the tasks of the
job, and someone with these skills is assigned to the position, just as any other
resource is managed. However, the ‘person package’ comes with other
characteristics, unique to the human resource. These characteristics impact on
performance, so they cannot be ignored.
Activity 7–7
Write a few single words and dot points that describe your general attitude
toward your job. Then assess the personal and work benefits from an
employer’s perspective. If there is discrepancy between your two
assessments, consider other factors and their relevance to your job design.
EEO and job design
The process of job design can pose EEO issues which need to be addressed if
the organisation seeks to ensure that this key HR process is an accurate and
sound foundation for utilisation of employees. A major concern is how
information is collected to understand what is presently done or required to be
done in particular jobs.
Also, a range of issues such as level of responsibility, level of competence,
scope and groupings of functions must be addressed. How can jobs be
designed to suit a wide variety of people (for example, those with sensory
impairments and those without impairment; men as well as women; those who
are fluent in language, and those with limited language skills)? How can jobs
be designed which provide incumbents with variety, challenge, opportunities
for reward, however that may be defined?
In designing jobs, the diversity of the workforce and the changing
characteristics of workers need to be considered. How can jobs be made
attractive to increasingly better educated workers? How can knowledge
workers be challenged and motivated by the structure and responsibilities of
their jobs? How can jobs be designed to allow for part-time workers, or for a
person who has a particular disability?
OHS and job design
Whilst the ideal is that all jobs should be free of health and safety hazards,
there are many jobs in which this cannot be so. For example, the in-field jobs
of emergency service organisations, the miners and engineers working in the
underground coalfields, and the horse-racing jobs of jockeys, trainers, and
strappers. During the design process of such jobs a focus on health and safety,
with the aim of minimising risk, should be paramount.
However, it is not only jobs that have obvious dangers that have health andsafety concerns. Even jobs in offices may contain elements of risk, such as air,
light, sitting arrangement that need to be considered in job design.
Ergonomics
Frank Gilbreth (cited in Wren 1994) further refined Taylor's ‘one best way’ of
organising work by carrying out many time-and-motion studies. He succeeded
in dramatically increasing speed and efficiency on the job, firstly in brick
laying and later in other industries. Taylor tended to focus on time
measurement and analysis, whereas Gilbreth looked more to methods analysis.
His wife, Lillian Gilbreth, was interested and assisted in her husband's work.
However, her particular interest lay in worker welfare. She took an interest in
work for the disabled. Like Taylor, the Gilbreths agreed that workers should
benefit from their increased productivity, but, unlike Taylor, they encouraged
initiative and suggestions.
By blending the engineering and human perspective, the Gilbreths also
provided a basis for the discipline of ergonomics, which is the application of
the technology of biological and engineering factors to the mutual adjustment
of people and machines problems.
Think about: In some circumstances, organisations are encouraged, and even
provided with expertise and financial incentives, to redesign jobs to suit the
individual needs of an incumbent with a disability. Perhaps this concept can be
taken further. Why should it be confined to only those with disabilities? When
discussing diversity management and intrinsic motivation, it was recognised
that each of us is unique, with different needs. If the ‘soft’ approach is
adopted, development and growth of the individual are important. How might
you incorporate the satisfaction of individual needs into effective job design?
Job analysis
Job design has been defined as the structuring of jobs as they ideally should be
performed. Job analysis is the defining of jobs as they are actually performed.
Therefore, job analysis can only be performed on jobs that already exist. Job
design can be about designing new jobs, and radical organisational restructure.
Job analysis is the systematic collection and recording of information about
individual jobs. It identifies the tasks, responsibilities, and context of a job,
and the KSAs (knowledge, skills and abilities) required to perform them
(Kramar et al. 2014). It is the process through which the duties of the job and
the characteristics of the person who should be selected to perform the job are
defined. The usual resulting documentation is a job description and a job
specification.
The job description describes:
the duties and responsibilities of the job
the working conditions
the tools, materials, and equipment required to perform the tasks
the standards to which the tasks are to be performed
the supervision the incumbent receives and provides, and other
relationships surrounding the job (Kramar et al. 2014).
The job specification describes:
the knowledge skills and abilities (KSA) the experience and qualifications
important personality and physical characteristics, values and attitudes that
are required to perform the job effectively (Kramar et al. 2014).
Clearly, the job specification factors should respond directly to a job
description factor or factors, and each job description factor should be
adequately and appropriately addressed by a factor or factors in the job
specification.
Implications of job analysis to HRM
Further to the activities identified by Kramar et al. (2014) that use job analysis
as a foundation on which to develop other HRM strategies, the following can
be added.
Remuneration
Job analysis is the basis of wage and salary administration. It is the
fundamental feature of job evaluation.
Occupational health and safety
Job analysis can identify hazards and other unhealthy environmental factors
such as dust and noise, some of which may be rectifiable.
Equal opportunity
Job analysis can reveal indirect discriminations, such as height and strength
requirements, that may be deemed necessary by a change of work systems, or
tools and equipment.
Irrespective of which technique is used, job descriptions and job specifications
can be problematic. However, job analysis can be tailored to suit the purposes
of the organisation. Some criteria include constant updating, ensuring
relevance, and maintaining emphasis.
Updating
In today’s volatile organisational climates, most organisations are in a constant
state of flux, therefore jobs are subject to an ongoing change process.
Furthermore, new appointments, transfers and promotions result in new
incumbents who inevitably change the job.
Relevance
A job description that is tightly prescribed can restrict the effectiveness of the
incumbent. A good job description provides sufficient information for the job
to be carried out effectively, and meet the needs for recruitment, selection,
training, appraisal, wage and salary setting.
Emphasis
Job analysis must emphasise three elements: 1) what is done; 2) how it is
done; and 3) why it is done (Renckly 2004). However, job descriptions are
written in such a way that there is sufficient opportunity for the particular
incumbent to bring something of him/herself to the job, something that is
unique.
As organisations grapple with the issues of technological change, globalised
competition, accelerated product change, deregulation, political instability,demographic change, the trend toward a service age, and the knowledge era,
there is the increasing need for flexibility. The concept of a job as a set of
clearly delineated and well-defined responsibilities is becoming increasingly
blurred.
However, there is the increasing demand by stakeholders to be accountable.
Thus, whilst stringent job analysis can hamper responsiveness to change and
quality of work-life, it is demanded as the means by which accountability can
be determined.
Think about: How do you manage such duality of ‘responsiveness to job
flexibility needs’ and ‘accountability to various stakeholders’ in contemporary
organisations?
Activity 7–8
Worth reading:
Nogradi, GS & Anthony, P V 2011, ‘Perceived job characteristics, job
involvement, and work motivation: an examination of the relationships for
seasonal (summer) municipal recreation employees’, Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration, vol. 6, no. 3.
Job redesign
Job redesign is performed when the method by which jobs are being
performed requires change, in response to new work processes, equipment or
technology (Kramar et al. 2014). Also, job redesign may be in response to
different human needs or to improve working conditions.
Activity 7–9
Search for a job ad in a newspaper that may be of your interest. Define ways
by which the job may be redesigned to provide enrichment. You should
endeavour to increase opportunities for experiencing feelings of
responsibility, achievement and growth, the satisfaction of completing a
whole identifiable task, and the recognition for doing a job well.
Summary
Job analysis and design are the base for all other HRM activities. It establishes
what the job entails and the person-characteristics that are needed for it to be
satisfactorily performed. This information forms the basis of decision making
for recruitment, selection, induction, performance appraisal, training and
development, remuneration and rewards, policies related to OHS, equal
opportunity, anti-discrimination and diversity management. Also it supports
the striving for optimum performance, and employee satisfaction and quality
of work-life.
Information on jobs can be gathered by a number of methods. For job analysis
to be effective, the methodology must be suited to the job being analysed.The outcomes of job analysis are a job description and a job specification. The
job description tells how and why the job is performed, and the job
specification describes the attributes required to perform the job.
For an organisation to survive and be competitive given the rapid changes and
complexity of most organisational environments, it must be flexible and
capable of rapid change. Clearly articulated jobs are giving way to jobs that
have broad vague parameters, and increased responsibilities. Thus detailed job
descriptions may be substituted with brief job and skills summaries.
Job design combines tasks to form a job. Effective job design results in jobs
that improve productivity, and are interesting and satisfying.
Review questions
Review question 7–1
What are the advantages and disadvantages of specialisation?
Review question 7–2
Explain the differences between job design and job analysis.
Review question 7–3
What is a job description?
Review question 7–4
What are some factors influencing organisational design?
Review question 7–5
What should be incorporated in a job specification?
References
Daft, RL 2007, Organization theory and design, 9th edn, Thomson, SouthWestern, Australia.
De Cieri, H, Kramar, R, Noe, RA, Hollenbeck, JR, Gerhart, B & Wright, PM
2005, Human resource management in Australia: strategy, people and
performance, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston.
Herzberg, R 1968, ‘One more time: how do you motivate employees?’,
Harvard Business Review, Jan–Feb, pp. 53–62.
Holman, D, Totterdell, P, et al. 2011, ‘Job design and the employee innovation
process: the mediating role of learning strategies’, Journal of Business and
Psychology, pp. 1–15.
Kramar, R, Bartram, T, Ceiri, HD, Noe, RA, Heooenbeck, JR, Gerhart, B &
Wright, RM 2014, Human Resources Management, McGraw-Hill, Sydney,
NSW.
Murray, P, Poole, D & Jones, G 2006, Contemporary issues in management,1st edn, Thomson.
Nogradi, G S & Anthony, PV 2011, ‘Perceived job characteristics, job
involvement, and work motivation: an examination of the relationships for
seasonal (summer) municipal recreation employees’, Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration, vol. 6, no. 3.
Renckly, RG 2004, Human resources, Barron’s, Hauppauge, NY.
Robbins, SP & Barnwell, N 2002, Organisation theory: concepts and cases,
4th edn, Pearson Prentice-Hall.
Shafritz, JM, Ott, JS & Jang, YK 2005, Classics of organisation theory, 6th
edn, Thomson, Australia.
Wren, DA 1994, The evolution of management thought, 4th edn, John Wiley,
New York.
Glossary
Accountability—the obligation to report back, that is, to report back the
outcomes of the responsibilities undertaken.
Authority—the right to influence others.
Creativity is the generating of new ideas.
Ergonomics—the application of the technology of biological and engineering
factors to the mutual adjustment of people and machines problems.
Innovation is the translating of ideas into new products, services, or methods
of production.
Job analysis is the defining of jobs as they are actually performed.
Job design—the process of developing the organisational structure by
assembling a number of tasks into a job or groups of jobs.
Job enlargement increases the number of tasks in a job; horizontal loading.
Job enrichment changes the job to include more activities and more
discretion of how to do them; vertical loading.
Job rotation is the systematic moving of workers from one simple task to
another
Mechanistic organisations are characterised by high formalisation,
formalised communication channels, centralised decision authority, fixed
duties, and a rigid hierarchy.
Organic organisations are characterised by low formalisation, informal
communications, collaboration, decentralised decision authority, and adaptable
duties.
Organisational design is the process by which managers design the formal
organisation structure to ensure that work activities achieve the organisation's
goals.
Organisation structure is the set of relationships among divisions,
departments, and managing positions.Responsibility—the obligation to perform.
Task force—a group that is established to achieve a particular goal within a
specified time frame.
Further readings
Chang, I & Kleiner, BH 2002, ‘How to conduct job analysis effectively’,
Management Research News, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 73–81.
Hyde, P, McBride, A, Young, R & Walshe, K 2005, ‘Role redesign: new ways
of working in the NHS’, Personnel Review, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 697–712.
Morgeson, FP, Johnson, MD, Campion, MA, Medsker, GJ & Mumford, TV
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