Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 1 © University of Southern Queensland Module 7 – The soft skills of project management Objectives On successful completion of this module, you should be able to: ● identify and classify the stakeholders of a project ● prepare a project stakeholder management strategy for a project ● select and define appropriate project management organisational structures for management of a small to medium project ● identify the appropriate ‘human’ aspects required for team work in a selected project ● identify the characteristics of a successful project manager ● put in place the processes for effective management of conflict in a project organisation ● establish effective communication management processes for a project ● establish an effective project management information system ● establish effective processes for project integration management ● carry out project management integration management of a small to medium project. Learning resources Text Turner, RJ 2014, The handbook of project-based management: Leading strategic change in organisations, 4th edn, McGraw Hill, New York – chapters 4, 6, 9, 10. Selected readings Selected reading 7.1: Belzer, K 2001, Project Management: Still More Art than Science, PMForum, viewed 15 December 2011, . Selected reading 7.2: Bourne, L & Walker, DHT 2005, ‘Visualising and mapping stakeholder influence’, Management Decision, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 649–60, viewed 16 December 2011, http://mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/P044_Visualising_mapping.pdf. Selected reading 7.3: Ford, RC & Randolph, WA 1992, ‘Cross-functional structures: A review and integration of matrix organization and project management’, Journal of Management, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 267–95, viewed 11 January 2012.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 2 © University of Southern Queensland Selected reading 7.4: Crawford, L 2011, ‘Extending the project management skill set to encompass change implementation’, paper presented to 25th IPMA Global Congress, Brisbane, Australia 9–12 October. Selected reading 7.5: Camilleri, E 2011, Project success: critical factors and behaviours, Gower Publishing Limited, Farnham, UK, chapter 7, pp. 89–112. Note: References will also be made to sections of the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (PMI 2013) which is available online through the USQ Library eBooks. Reading these sections of the PMBOK® Guide will assist your understanding of the topics. 7.1 Introduction Allow adequate time for this module as it is quite large, covering some key areas of managing projects through the management of important internal stakeholders, communication between all stakeholders and integration of key project processes and activities. In module 5, we considered the ‘hard’ skills of managing projects which we suggested were related to scope, cost and time. In these study materials, they are described as ‘hard’ because the respective dimensions of the project are quantitative in nature and easily measured, and rigorous management techniques work reasonably well in defining and controlling the outcomes. In this module, we talk about ‘soft’ skills. There is no real consensus within the profession on the nature of the relevant skill sets, nor which ones should be included. For the sake of convenience in this course, we will consider the soft skills as those that relate to the management of people, communication and integration. As Belzer (2001, p. 1) indicates: Understanding processes, tools, and techniques (the hard skills, the science of project management)—and knowing when and how to apply them—is only part of the answer. A greater piece of the puzzle for successful project delivery is soft skills (the art of project management) – the timeless principles of working within an organization. Soft skills help to define the business value, clarify the vision, determine requirements, provide direction, build teams, resolve issues, and mitigate risk. Without the appropriate soft skills, the likelihood of project success diminishes. The subjects of people management and organisational structures are well covered in management texts and this module examines those aspects relevant to project-oriented organisational structures. Organisational structures are simply a tool to assist in the efficient utilisation of human resources – in the end, it comes down to managing the people who can influence the likelihood of a successful project outcome. Based on wide-ranging research undertaken within the discipline of project management, we now know what needs to be done, at least in a generic sense, to manage a project through its life-cycle to a successful conclusion. We continue to prove, however, that no matter how much detailed planning nor how appropriate the use of clever tools and techniques, if the people involved in executing the project do not care about the outcome the project is unlikely to achieve its objectives. Hence the importance of developing the soft skills that allow a project manager to identify the key factors that will influence the likelihood of project success, and managing those factors successfully in a quiet and unobtrusive way. ProjectModule 7 – The soft skills of project management 3 © University of Southern Queensland management refers frequently to the concept of stakeholders, but there is little consensus on who or what represents a project stakeholder, and how they can be managed. Few stakeholders, especially those who see themselves as being at a senior level, like to feel that they are being ‘managed’. Learning how to manage stakeholders discreetly is extremely important for the effective project manager, and the importance of this process is reflected in the addition of stakeholder management as a new chapter in the fifth edition of the Guide to the PMBOK® published in 2013. This module will also examine communication in the project environment and the importance of an effective project stakeholder management strategy. The module briefly considers the use of project management software packages but we are more interested in the objectives of stakeholder management and communication than any specific tools. Their use as a decision support tool is explained, as is their value as the core of a project management information system (PMIS). This management juggling act of coordinating people, organisations and resources comes under the concept of project integration. Every decision will impact on some other aspect of the project, and the project manager has a responsibility to balance the competing interests in order to deliver the optimal outcomes that satisfy the expectations and needs of major stakeholders. To fulfil those responsibilities the project manager must develop the soft skills at a sufficiently high level to manage downwards, sidewards and upwards. Reading activity To set the scene for the need for soft skills in project management, read selected reading 7.1 by Belzer, 2001. 7.2 The management of people in projects 7.2.1 Project stakeholders and organisational structures The management of people in projects relates to the management of individuals and the utilisation of organisational structures. Individuals come in all sorts of categories and may be part of the project team or may be someone who is an ‘outsider’. They may be supportive of the project or they may be violently opposed to the project. They may be acting alone or may be part of a larger organised group or organisation. One way or another they will be a project ‘stakeholder’. To effectively manage the ‘human’ resources related to the project, the project manager will have to allocate roles and responsibilities within the organisational structure. These in turn will relate to specific aspects of the project so there is a clear linkage between the respective elements of the project and individual team members. Reporting structures and levels of authority will be required for efficiency and some form of organisational structure will either be imposed on the project team members, or will evolve of its own accord. Communications between individuals and organisations become critical and management of the information flows is an important challenge.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 4 © University of Southern Queensland The exact extent to which organisational factors influence project management performance has not been established in project management literature, but it is sensible to assume that there will be advantages in developing an organisational structure for a project which is optimised to the nature of the project, the type of staff which operate in it and the authority and rules under which they are expected to conform and work effectively. We have reason to believe that a ‘good’ organisation structure (ostensibly one where roles are well defined and relationships between positions are also clear) will run smoothly and effectively, and that staff will invariably make a ‘bad’ organisation work anyway through informal arrangements, albeit at a lower level of efficiency. Part of an organisation’s performance is due to the structure and part is due to the calibre of the people. 7.2.2 Stakeholder management There are numerous definitions of ‘stakeholders’ and it is not critical which one you use. PMI defines stakeholders as ‘the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project’ (PMI 2013, chapter 13). It is important that you are consistent, and that others understand the meaning that you give to the term. Turner (2014) sees stakeholders as anyone who has an interest in the project. In earlier research, Dinsmore (1995) defines stakeholders as those who are positively or negatively affected by the activities or final results of a project. He classifies them under the following headings: project champions (including investors, project sponsors, upper management, clients and politicians); project participants (including the project manager, team members, suppliers, contractors, specialists, and regulatory agencies): and external stakeholders (including environmentalists, community leaders, social groups, the media, and project team family members). Other classifications include primary versus secondary by Cleland (1999) as illustrated in module 1, and internal versus external. It is important that you understand where each stakeholder sits in relation to the project which is why a stakeholder analysis will identify where risks can arise from a stakeholder perspective, and how you can best use your project resources to reduce those risks, and increase the likelihood of project success. Carrying out a simple matrix analysis to identify which stakeholders have a high or low level of interest and a high or low level of power to influence project outcomes will reveal which stakeholders sit in that high interest/high power quadrant. More detailed discussion on how to manage stakeholders is provided in MGT8027 Project HR, communications & integration management. Other more sophisticated methods of analysing stakeholders have been developed and selected reading 7.2 provides an insight into the identification and analysis of project stakeholders. Reading activity To set the scene for the need for soft skills in project management, read selected reading 7.2 by Bourne & Walker, 2005. Reading activity To explore the influence of stakeholders in project management, read the set text by Turner, chapter 10.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 5 © University of Southern Queensland Reading activity Read chapter 13 of the Guide to the PMBOK® (PMI 2013). 7.3 Project organisation types 7.3.1 The organisation continuum It has long been suggested that there are three major organisational forms used in the management of projects – functional, matrix and project – and these may be presented as a continuum ranging from functional at one end to project at the other (Salapatas 1981). The continuum is based on the percentage of people who work in their own functional department versus those who are full time members of a project team. The dividing line between functional and matrix is the point at which an individual is appointed with part-time responsibility for coordination across functional department lines. Figure 7.1 illustrates the continuum principle. Figure 1: Organisational continuum in project managementModule 7 – The soft skills of project management 6 © University of Southern Queensland (Source: Salapatas 1981, p. 63, colour enhanced by USQ.) Matrix organisations are often described as strong or weak. Strong and weak are not used in the sense of good and bad, rather they refer to the relative size and power of the integrative function in the matrix. The bottom line of the continuum diagram shows a weak matrix has a part-time coordinator. Power remains with the functional manager. The matrix gets stronger as you move from fulltime coordinator to full-time project manager and finally to a project office that includes such people as systems engineers, cost analysts and accountants, and planners/schedulers. The difference between coordinator and manager is the difference between mere integration and actual decision making. Table 7.1 defines in further detail the different styles of project management structures that can exist along the continuum. Table 1: Project management structures (Source: Larson & Gobeli 1987, p. 129) 7.3.2 Functional organisation – advantages and disadvantages In a project-related environment, the most common form of organisational structure is the functional organisation, sometimes called a bureaucracy. The organisational structure is broken down into different functional areas such as engineering, finance, production, marketing, logistics, personnel and so forth. Each functional area has a senior manager who has a line responsibility. In the functional line resides the particular specialisation and its hierarchy of experts and vested interests. The prominence of this centre of expertise in theModule 7 – The soft skills of project management 7 © University of Southern Queensland functional organisation is closely guarded and any attempts to usurp this position will be strongly opposed. Take for example the engineering department – it has all the design, test and development engineers and is managed by a hierarchy of engineers under the chief engineer. It is both the written and unwritten law that all engineering matters must be ‘cleared’ by the engineering department. Although there may be senior professional engineers in the Manufacturing Department, or the Quality Assurance Department, these are not seen as having the same degree of authority as those in the specific functional division of the organisation. While the disadvantages of functional organisations may seem to be its rigid and specialised structure, its strengths lie in its specialised departments and its on-going stability. Figure 7.2 shows the structure of a typical functional organisation with its respective advantages and disadvantages. Figure 2: Firm organised by functional departments The functional organisation is the traditional structure for a manufacturing company which has general management requirements associated with on-going operations of a similar type. Table 7.2 highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the conventional functional structure in a project context. Table 7.2: Advantages and disadvantages of functional structures Advantages Disadvantages Maximises functional interest within departmental units Difficulty in achieving coordination between functional areas Simple communication and decision network Fosters a parochial emphasis on functional objectives Results in efficient use of resources Cost of coordination between departments can be high Facilitates measurement of functional outputs and results Employee identification with specialist groups makes change difficult Gives status to major functional areas Limits development of broadly trained managers Preserves strategic control at top management level Encourages inter-departmental rivalry and conflict Client satisfaction can be lowModule 7 – The soft skills of project management 8 © University of Southern Queensland 7.3.3 The matrix organisation – the hybrid system The matrix style of organisation has evolved as a means of providing a project structure which will maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses of functional structures. In effect, a large organisation sets up a smaller, temporary, special-purpose structure with a specific objective or set of objectives. It is interesting to note that the internal structure of the project organisation is very often functional in nature. The advantage of the project based organisation comes from the single-mindedness of purpose and the unity of command. Close links are formed and a team spirit is usually engendered through a clear understanding of well-defined objectives. Informal communications are usually very effective in the close-knit team. Setting up a new highly visible temporary structure, however, upsets the regular organisation. Facilities are provided in the new project office which may not be available elsewhere in the organisation. There is the question of job security for those who go to the new team – personnel will often lose their position in the functional structure while they are off working on a project. The functional, hierarchical organisation is organised around technical inputs, such as engineering, marketing, accounting, etc. The project organisation is a single purpose structure organised around project outputs, such as a new ship, aircraft or vehicle. The solution lies in developing a proper balance between long term objectives of the functional departments in building and maintaining technical expertise and the short-term objectives of the project. Figure 7.3 shows an example of the Matrix organisation concept. Figure 3: Matrix organisation The following list in table 7.3 highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the matrix organisation.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 9 © University of Southern Queensland Table 7.3: Advantages and disadvantages of a matrix organisation Advantages Disadvantages ● Efficient use of resources – individual specialists as well as equipment can be shared across projects. ● Project integration – There is a clear and workable mechanism for coordinating work across functional lines. ● Improved information flow – Communication is enhanced both laterally and vertically. ● Flexibility – Frequent contact between members from different departments expedite decision making and adaptive responses. ● Discipline retention – Functional experts and specialists are kept together even though projects come and go. ● Improved motivation and commitment – Involvement of members in decision making enhances commitment and motivation. ● Power struggles – Conflict occurs since boundaries of authority and responsibility deliberately overlap. ● Heightened conflict – Competition over scarce resources occurs especially when personnel are being shared across projects. ● Slow reaction time – Heavy emphasis on consultation and shared decision making retards decision making. ● Difficulty in monitoring and controlling – Multidiscipline involvement heightens information demands and makes it difficult to evaluate responsibility. ● Excessive overhead – Double management by creating project managers. ● Experienced stress – Dual reporting relations contribute to ambiguity and role conflict (Source: Larson & Gobeli 1987, p. 130) Reading activity Read your text by Turner, chapter 9 for further information on managing organisational structures in a project context. Reading activity Read your text by Turner, chapter 6 for further information on developing organisational capability and individual competence. 7.4 The project team Larger projects tend to need a dedicated team of specialists to provide full time attention to critical operational and technical aspects. These project teams or project offices usually take the form of small functionally oriented structures reflecting a similarity with the parent organisation structure.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 10 © University of Southern Queensland Figure 7.4 shows the main features of the make-up of a typical project team or project office for a capital equipment procurement project. The main feature of the structure is the emphasis placed on the core staff and the partial involvement of some participants; these often provide services such as computer programming, legal counselling, and contract development. The figure also shows the fluctuating levels of involvement which occur as the project progresses. Figure 4: Management team structure for project requiring full project office The importance of the project to the customer or supplier organisation will often be the critical factor in determining the level of core staff in the project office. Strengths and weaknesses of the project team leader can become more apparent when the project team has a low level of staffing. One problem that you should be aware of is that the project team within a matrix organisation can become ‘functional’ in behaviour and integration across the project team can once again become difficult. 7.4.1 The project manager Role and responsibilities Once the project organisation has been designed, it is necessary to allocate staff to it. The essential aspect of this is that it is done in such a way that each staff member understands quite clearly what their tasks and responsibilities are. Equally important is to ensure that somebody is responsible for each and every task in the project – or tasks will be missed.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 11 © University of Southern Queensland What sort of person is needed? The following extract from Kerzner (2004) proposes that if the responsibilities of a project manager were applied to the total organisation, they would describe the qualities of the general manager. Project management cannot succeed unless a good project manager is at the controls. The selection process is an upper-level management responsibility. The major responsibilities of the project manager include: ● To produce the end item with the available resources and within the constraints of time, cost, and performance/technology ● To meet contractual profit objectives ● To make all required decisions whether they be for alternatives or termination ● To act as the customer (external) and upper-level and functional (internal) communications focal point ● To ‘negotiate’ with all functional disciplines for accomplishment of the necessary work packages within time, cost and performance/technology ● To resolve all conflicts. (Source: Kerzner 2004, p. 143) Project managers are often thought to possess power by virtue of their position. In practice the power of the project manager to dictate the course of the project is flimsy at best. Most project managers find that the success of the project can be determined by factors far from the centre of the activity, in areas where the project manager has little or no measure of control. These areas can include sub-sub-contractors (sometimes in foreign countries), other government departments/regulatory bodies, trade unions, transportation systems and the like. Situations can arise, arbitrarily and without warning, which can disrupt schedules and increase costs. Project issues are often decided by steering groups or control boards with little or no reference to the project manager who has a high degree of responsibility but little authority. Part of the project manager’s responsibility is to bring about change, but the recognised competencies for project managers currently do not include those required for change management. The skill sets required to do that have been examined by Crawford (2011, p. 1) who suggests that ‘there is a need for a better understanding of the activities and competencies required for the effective implementation of change’. Additionally, a recurring theme in integration management is the need for control of changes to the project. The project manager must be able to receive inputs from many sources and effect adjustments as necessary, to keep the project on track. There are many processes by which change control is managed, such as the establishment of steering groups, or project control boards. Each of these approaches is another example of an attempt to put in place effective integration management, and to be effective, the project manager must extend the scope of his/her vision as indicated in figure 7.5.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 12 © University of Southern Queensland Figure 5: The project leader’s direction finder (Source: Adapted from Briner et al. 1996, p. 17, colour enhanced by USQ.) Reading activity Read your text by Turner, chapter 6 for further information on managing organisational structures in a project context. Reading activity Read selected reading 7.3 by Ford and Randolph for more information on project organisational matrix structures. Reading activity Read selected reading 7.4 by Crawford, 2011, for an understanding of the competencies required by a project manager to effectively manage change.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 13 © University of Southern Queensland 7.5 Resolving conflict in the project organisation One of the most important roles of the project manager is making decisions and providing working arrangements which are conducive to reducing conflict within the project and with outside organisations. Table 7.4 shows the results of a research project whereby about one hundred experienced project managers ranked the areas of conflict in project management with the various phases of the project life. They were asked to rank in order the item which they would expect from their experience would be the most intense source of conflict. Although the research is dated, the findings are still indicative of the situations in projects today. However, even though the schedule may be the ‘source’ of the conflict, it is most likely that this stems from people issues rather than technical issues. Table 7.4: Survey rankings of seven sources of conflict Project formation Build-up Main program Program end Schedules 3 2 1 1 Priorities 1 1 4 4 Labour 4 5 3 3 Technical opinions 6 4 2 6 Procedures 2 3 5 7 Personality 7 6 7 2 Cost 5 7 6 5 (Source: Adapted from Thamhain & Wilemon, 1975) Reading activity Read the set text by Turner, chapter 10, pp. 177-184 for further information on the creation and management of project teams. Reading activity For more information on project organisational structures, teams and conflict, read selected reading 7.5, Camilleri, chapter 7. Suggested reading activity This is a suggested reading for those who have the time, but it is not a selected reading as part of the materials. For additional information on project organisational structures, you might like to read the PMBOK® Guide, PMI 2013, chapter 9.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 14 © University of Southern Queensland Learning activity 1 Think about the project you are using for assignment 2, develop a simple organisational chart for the project. 7.6 Project communication The management of project communications is particularly important to the success of the project. As Belzer suggests (2001, p. 2): Few projects fail because the Gantt chart/PERT/CPM are wrong, the roles/responsibilities are not mapped out in a matrix, or the cost charts were off. More often they fail because of a project manager’s inability to communicate effectively, work within the organization’s culture, motivate the project team, manage stakeholder expectations, understand the business objectives, solve problems effectively, and make clear and knowledgeable decisions. These are the skills that take time to acquire through experience, coaching, and mentoring. You should focus on the aspects of ‘essential information’, ‘timeliness’, ‘accuracy’ and ‘relevance’. The introduction of the computer as a tool for project management brought with it the capability to drown people in information. When this happens, the value of the communication is wasted because people do not bother, or are too busy, to fossick through a pile of paper looking for the one piece of information that may be relevant to them. On the other hand, the computer has the ability to manipulate data and produce a report very rapidly. Having a single database and one source of information reduces the potential for transcription errors, increasing the likely accuracy. ‘Relevance’ is tied to ‘essential information’. With the computer and well planned project communications, reports can be tailored so recipients get only the information they need, when they need it. We will look at the concept of the PMIS later in this module, and you will see how it can produce tailored information on demand – so long as the input is accurate and up to date, and sufficient effort has been devoted to the communications plan. The Tasmanian Government suggests that ‘the types of communication to be considered can be categorised as verbal, electronic, written or visual based on the purpose of the tool. Mode (formal or informal), timeliness (slow, moderate or fast) and reach (limited, moderate or broad) of each type must also be considered’ (Tasmanian Government 2011, p. 81) and table 7.5 provides examples of the types of communication.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 15 © University of Southern Queensland Table 7.5: Types of communications Verbal Electronic Written Visual Presentations /briefing sessions (one-to-one, one-tomany) Telephone (one-toone)/Teleconferences (one-to-many) Forums Networking facilitation Staff meetings Seminars/workshops Community meetings Launches Specific events Social gatherings Visitation programs Radio/television Personal email to identified stakeholders (one to one, one to many) Broadcast email (one to many) Internet/intranet including online forums, fact sheets, newsletter, SharePoint – web sharing of ongoing project planning with internal and/or external stakeholders SMS messaging Weblog Facebook, MySpace, YouTube Twitter RSS Feed CD-ROM/DVDs Fax stream, faxback Mailouts of important documentation (letter, memorandum, factsheet, FAQs) Newsletter Advertising – newspaper, magazine, web Pamphlets and brochures (consider shelf life issues) Information in agency newsletters, etc. Media release Ministerial Request for Tender (RFT) Contract Project planning documentation Display – workplace, conference Transport advertising ‘Roadshow’ ‘Parody’ presentation – play, puppet show 3D presentation (Source: Tasmanian Government 2011, p. 81) Burton and Michael (1992) suggest that the communication plan should address the following: ● ‘Who will be working on the project? ● Who will be affected by the project? ● When do we need to communicate? ● How shall we communicate (by report, letter, memorandum, newsletter, questionnaire, video presentation, meetings, overhead transparencies, suggestion box)? ● Who is responsible for passing on what areas of information? ● What channels do we need for feedback and who is responsible for giving, receiving and acting on it’? (Source: Burton & Michael 1992, p. 98)Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 16 © University of Southern Queensland One simple way of producing a communication plan is to draw up a matrix, with recipients down the side and communication formats across the top. Each of the junction points can contain such detail as the medium to be used and the frequency of transmission. We now move on to look at stakeholder management. You will find that the selection, classification and management of the stakeholders in your project impacts directly on your communication planning. It is vital to success that many of these stakeholders receive particular tailored information as part of your stakeholder management strategy. Reading activity Read the text by Turner, chapter 4, pp. 59-66 on project governance. Reading activity Read the text by Turner, chapter 4, pp. 66-68 and chapter 10, pp. 173-176 on project communication. Suggested reading activity This is not a selected reading as part of the study materials. If you like to read more about project communications, read PMI 2013, PMBOK® Guide chapter 10, for a review of project communications management and stakeholder management strategies. Learning activity 2 Think about a project for analysis. Develop a project stakeholder communication management strategy for the project. 7.7 The project management information system (PMIS) An important aspect of communications management in a project environment is the identification of what information needs to be collected, analysed, stored and disseminated. Information flows start on day 1 of a project and continue throughout the project and at times for many years beyond the handover of the project deliverable to cater for warranty periods, user testing, etc. Communications cover a wide range of media and include telephone calls, memos, reports, text messages, email, project management plans, etc. Effective management of the communications could become critical if a dispute arises, and especially so if litigation takes place. Those parties who have good records tend to be more successful than those who don’t. However, communications management can be a time-consuming and expensive function. The formal project management information system (PMIS) has emerged from computer based critical path systems for project scheduling and the use of database structures to store and manipulate project data.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 17 © University of Southern Queensland In broad terms a PMIS could be defined as any system of information which is used by project managers and participants in the planning and execution of projects. This may be in printed or electronic format but increasingly, information is captured and manipulated electronically in digital format by enterprise-wide computer systems that are linked globally within organisations as well as externally to other stakeholders. A project management information system should capture and manage data related to: ● people ● activities ● procedures ● technology. The PMIS can be utilised for: ● collection of the relevant data from multiple sources, often automatically, ● storage until it is required ● processing of data to provide answers to specific questions for better decision-making ● communication of resulting information to those who need to act on it. Suggested reading activity This is not a selected reading as part of the study materials. Should you wish to learn more about PMISs and their relation to project success, you can look up the following journal article: Raymond, L & Bergeron, F 2008, ‘Project management information systems: An empirical study of their impact on project managers and project success’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 213–20, viewed 11 January 2012. 7.7.1 The function of project management software Project management computer software packages are a means of providing a level of detail in the planning of large and complex projects which would be impractical or impossible by manual means. PERT (Program Evaluation & Review Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method) activity networks can now be generated easily to illustrate the activities that comprise the project, and the relationships between them. Many organisations purchase project management software believing that in doing so their project management problems are overcome. What happens is that a whole new set of problems begin. Project management software is not easy to use and it often needs a completely new level of understanding of what the project is about and how things need to happen. What must always be remembered is that the software is simply an elaborate and complex data-base system; it will only do a fixed assortment of algorithms, depending on which process is requested from the menu selections. It needs practice, training andModule 7 – The soft skills of project management 18 © University of Southern Queensland dedication from the users to learn how to use the software effectively and commitment by senior management to ensure that this learning process takes place. When used properly the software provides assistance to project planners and managers in the development and understanding of their projects. It requires project managers to consider many aspects of their projects well before actual problems arise. It allows simulations to be run, and ‘what if...’ questions to be considered and simulated. Your practical work in this unit will give you an insight into how project management software works and how it can be integrated together with other common software packages to give a very useful management system which provides graphic and text reports. If this is the first project management software system you have used, you will find that it can be used as a base-line for comparison when judging other project management software specifications in the future. Basic level Users applying the software at this level are satisfied with the basic time schedules, bar charts and reports. Even at this level the information can be extremely useful for overall project timing and for checking the feasibility of meeting operational target dates which may be some two to five years away. The software is used to do the hard work of drawing diagrams and calculating where milestones are likely to occur. At this level some ‘housekeeping’ data is needed to specify any new project, such as the calendars, the display options etc. Then all that is needed is to ‘create’ the tasks within the project, provide an estimate of the time required to complete each task, link these together using the linking mechanisms provided in the system and, finally, specify either a start or finish date. General level The project which needs to be planned at the general level may not be very complicated but will have quite a few people and organisations that will be involved in the work. Accordingly, there is a need to show them all clearly when they will be needed so that the project to ensure there are no resource conflicts. Advanced or detailed level The project at this level is probably a complex development where most of the activities may be timed in man-hours of work and there are different shifts for the different resources being used on the tasks. There are different teams of people and these must be coordinated with other projects in the same organisation. The total project will probably have to be broken down into minor projects and the work breakdown structure taken to a very detailed work package level in order to ensure very fine control over costs and expenditure. Most important aspect Computer-based project management information systems are driven by algorithms that may vary from package to package. They are not fool-proof and are subject to the ‘garbage in, garbage out’ syndrome. The level of precision of calculations and reports can provide a false sense of security and accuracy in the outputs. Common sense should always be used to interpret reports generated from a PMIS. Don’t attempt to generate too much detail too early. Use the PMIS iteratively to gradually improve the level of accuracy as more detailed information comes to hand.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 19 © University of Southern Queensland This section of the module has taken a detailed look at the stakeholder and organisational context for management of projects and the human resources needed to manage them effectively. We have considered how to identify and analyse the stakeholders for a project so we understand their respective requirements, and how we can manage the complex communications that are necessary to ensure that all stakeholders are kept appropriately informed and involved. We have looked at the wide range on interpersonal skills that a project manager needs, especially those to deal with the inevitable conflicts that will arise. We have considered the allocation of responsibilities for the respective components of projects because of the need for delegation in a complex project environment. 7.8 Project integration 7.8.1 What is project integration? In the generic sense, integration is the bringing together of other elements to create an holistic outcome. In project management, we need to understand the nature of the specific project we are managing, and bring together the respective elements in an appropriate way. If we are developing a large and complicated defence-oriented project, integration of weapon systems, propulsion systems, aviation systems, etc. is critical for the deliverable to perform as expected. In such a project, procurement may be a critical aspect of the project. If we are managing an organisational restructure, procurement may not be a significant aspect of the project at all. The project manager must take control of the respective ‘strings’ of the project and manage each aspect without adversely impacting on the other aspects. In a previous module, we discussed how various ‘triangles’ are frequently discussed in the project management literature, revealing the interconnectedness of such aspects as scope, time and cost, or scope, cost and performance. Each of these ‘triangles’ is a simplistic example of project integration management. Pull one string in a particular way, and other strings are affected. Each project will require a slightly different touch on each of the ten aspects of managing projects, as set out in the Guide to the PM Body of Knowledge (or PMBOK® Guide) (PMI 2013). Project integration management has been defined by the Project Management Institute in the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) as ‘the processes and activities to identify, define, combine, unify, and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project Management Process Groups’ (PMI 2013, chapter 4). It includes ‘characteristics of unification, consolidation, communication, and integrative actions that are crucial to controlled project execution through completion, successfully managing stakeholder expectations, and meeting requirements’ (chapter 4). 7.8.2 Project integration management processes As we discussed above, integration is the orchestration role played by the project manager or project director. The project manager must frequently stand back from the details of the project and study the bigger picture. It is often necessary to revisit the project objectives in the context of the organisational requirements, and to ‘fine tune’ the processes so that the outcomes are consistent with the requirements of the major stakeholders. The PMBOK® Guide (PMI 2013) suggests the following major steps:Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 20 © University of Southern Queensland ● Develop project charter ● Develop project management plan ● Direct and manage project execution ● Monitor and control project work ● Integrated change control ● Close project. There are many models that attempt to represent the holistic and inclusive nature of project integration management, and one view of is provided by Turner (1999) in an earlier model of the integrative processes as illustrated in figure 7.6. Figure 6: An integrated model of project management (Source: Turner 1999, p. 23, colour enhanced by USQ.) In module 4, we discussed the business case and the project management plan (PMP). Both of these are important tools for integration management. The business case creates the initial framework, bringing together all of the criteria necessary for a project to be regarded as successful by key stakeholders. The PMP is also a critical document as it brings together all of the relevant information in one place, at a key point in time when the project sponsor must make the ‘go/no go’ decision. The PMP often has multiple purposes including gaining sponsor sign-off and will provide other key stakeholders such as financiers, champions, steering committee members and project team members with the essential information needed to fully understand the scope of the project, the risks, the schedule, the budget, etc. and how it will be achieved. If you get the PM plan correct, you are well on the way to effective integration management and a successful project. If you get it wrong, you will be on the back foot right from the start.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 21 © University of Southern Queensland The need for, and the importance of, project integration management will increase with the size and complexity of the project, or the project portfolio if there are more than one project. A more detailed look at project integration management is provided in MGT8027 Project human resources, communications and integration management. Learning activity 3 Consider the practical integration management steps you would take for the project for analysis in assignment 2. Reference list Belzer, K 2001, Project management: still more art than science, PMForum, viewed 15 December 2011, http://www.pmforum.org/library/papers/2001/ArtthanScience.pdf. Bourne, L & Walker, DHT 2005, ‘Visualising and mapping stakeholder influence’, Management Decision, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 649–60, viewed 16 December 2011, http://mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/P044_Visualising_mapping.pdf. Briner, W, Hastings, C & Geddes, M 1996, Project leadership, 2nd edn, Gower, Aldershot, UK. Burton, C & Michael, N 1992, A practical guide to project management, Kogan Page, London. Camilleri, E 2011, Project success: critical factors and behaviours, Gower Publishing Limited Farnham, UK. Cleland, D 1999, Strategic design and implementation, 3rd edn, McGraw Hill, New York. Crawford, L 2011, ‘Extending the project management skillset to encompass change implementation’, paper presented to 25th IPMA Global Congress, Brisbane, Australia, 9–12 October. Ford, RC & Randolph, WA 1992, ‘Cross-functional structures: a review and integration of matrix organization and project management’, Journal of Management, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 267–95, viewed 11 January 2012. Dinsmore, PC 1995, ‘Will the real stakeholders please stand up?’, PMNetwork, Dec. Kerzner, H 2004, Project management – a systems approach to planning, scheduling and controlling, 9th edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York. PMI 2013, A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 5th edn, Project Management Institute, Newtown Square, Pennsylvania. Raymond, L & Bergeron, F 2008, ‘Project management information systems: An empirical study of their impact on project managers and project success’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 213–20.Module 7 – The soft skills of project management 22 © University of Southern Queensland Salapatas, JW 1981, ‘Organising for project management’, in LC Struckenbruck (ed.), The implementation of project management, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, pp. 51–68. Tasmanian Government 2011, Project Management Guidelines: Version 7, Tasmanian Government, Hobart. Thamhain, HJ & Wilemon, DL 1975, ‘Conflict management in project life cycles’, Sloan Management Review, Summer, pp. 31–50. Turner, JR 1999, The handbook of project-based management, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, London. Turner, RJ 2014, The handbook of project-based management: Leading strategic change in organisations, 4th edn, McGraw Hill, New York.